338
Views
24
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Atopic dermatitis: understanding the disease and its management

Pages 3091-3103 | Accepted 19 Sep 2007, Published online: 29 Oct 2007

References

  • Breuer K, Werfel T, Kapp A. Safety and efficacy of topical calcineurin inhibitors in the treatment of childhood atopic dermatitis. Am J Clin Dermatol 2005;6:65–77
  • Ellis C, Luger T, Abeck D, et al. International Consensus Conference on Atopic Dermatitis II (ICCAD II): clinical update and current treatment strategies. Br J Dermatol 2003;148 (Suppl 63):3–10
  • Hoetzenecker W, Ecker R, Kopp T, et al. Pimecrolimus leads to an apoptosis-induced depletion of T cells but not Langerhans cells in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005;115:1276–83
  • Rajka G. Clinical aspects. In: Rajka G, editor. Essential aspects of atopic dermatitis. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1989. p. 4–55
  • Wüthrich B. Epidemiology and natural history of atopic dermatitis. Allergy Clin Immunol Int 1996;8:77–82
  • The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) Steering Committee. Worldwide variation in prevalence of symptoms of asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, and atopic eczema: ISAAC. Lancet 1998;351:1225–32
  • Burrows B, Martinez FD, Halonen M, et al. Association of asthma with serum IgE levels and skin-test reactivity to allergens. New Engl J Med 1989;320:271–7
  • Gustafsson D, Sjöberg O, Foucard T. Development of allergies and asthma in infants and young children with atopic dermatitis – a prospective follow-up to 7 years of age. Allergy 2000;55:240–5
  • Kulig M, Bergmann R, Klettke U, et al. Natural course of sensitization to food and inhalant allergens during the first 6 years of life. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999;103:1173–9
  • Lau S, Nickel R, Niggemann B, et al. The development of childhood asthma: lessons from the German Multicentre Allergy Study (MAS). Paediatr Respir Rev 2002;3:265–72
  • Rhodes HL, Thomas P, Sporik R, et al. A birth cohort study of subjects at risk of atopy: twenty-two-year follow-up of wheeze and atopic status. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;165:176–80
  • Bergmann RL, Edenharter G, Bergmann KE, et al. Atopic dermatitis in early infancy predicts allergic airway disease at 5 years. Clin Exp Allergy 1998;28:965–70
  • Eichenfield LF, Hanifin JM, Beck LA, et al. Atopic dermatitis and asthma: parallels in the evolution of treatment. Pediatrics 2003;111:608–16
  • Lewis-Jones MS, Finlay AY. The Children’s Dermatology Life Quality Index (CDLQI): initial validation and practical use. Br J Dermatol 1995;132:942–9
  • Lewis-Jones MS. Atopic dermatitis in childhood. Hosp Med 2001;62:136–43
  • Fivenson D, Arnold RJG, Kaniecki DJ, et al. The effect of atopic dermatitis on total burden of illness and quality of life on adults and children in a large managed care organization. J Manag Care Pharm 2002;8:333–42
  • Chamlin SL, Frieden IJ, Williams ML, Chren MM. Effects of atopic dermatitis on young American children and their families. Pediatrics 2004;114:607–11
  • Finlay AY. Measures of the effect of adult severe atopic eczema on quality of life. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 1996;149–54
  • Paller AS, McAlister RO, Doyle JJ, Jackson A. Perceptions of physicians and pediatric patients about atopic dermatitis, its impact, and its treatment. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2002;41:323–32
  • Chamlin SL. The psychosocial burden of childhood atopic dermatitis. Dermatol Ther 2006;19:104–7
  • Lawson V, Lewis-Jones MS, Finlay AY, et al. The family impact of childhood atopic dermatitis: the Dermatitis Family Impact Questionnaire. Br J Dermatol 1998;138:107–13
  • Ellis CN, Drake LA, Prendergast MM, et al. Cost of atopic dermatitis and eczema in the United States. J Am Acad Dermatol 2002;46:361–70
  • Leung DYM, Boguniewicz M, Howell MD, et al. New insights into atopic dermatitis. J Clin Invest 2004;113:651–7
  • Simpson EL, Hanifin JM. Atopic dermatitis. Med Clin North Am 2006;90:149–67
  • Ring J. Diseases due to environmental factors. Available at: www.science.ngfn.de/dateien/nuw-531T05_ring.pdf
  • Palmer CN, Irvine AD, Terron-Kwiatkowski A, et al. Common loss-of-function variants of the epidermal barrier protein filaggrin are a major predisposing factor for atopic dermatitis. Nat Genet 2006;38:441–6
  • Weidinger S, Illig T, Baurecht H, et al. Loss-of-function variations within the filaggrin gene predispose for atopic dermatitis with allergic sensitizations. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006;118:214–9
  • Imokawa G, Abe A, Jin K, et al. Decreased level of ceramides in stratum corneum of atopic dermatitis: an etiologic factor in atopic dry skin? J Invest Dermatol 1991;96:523–6
  • Novak N, Bieber T, Leung DYM. Immune mechanisms leading to atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003;112:S128–S139
  • Leung DY, Bieber T. Atopic dermatitis. Lancet 2003;361: 151–60
  • Hamid Q, Boguniewicz M, Leung DYM. Differential in situ cytokine gene expression in acute versus chronic atopic dermatitis. J Clin Invest 1994;94:870–6
  • Novembre E, Cianferoni A, Lombardi E, et al. Natural history of ‘intrinsic’ atopic dermatitis. Allergy 2001;56:452–3
  • Abramovits W. A clinician’s paradigm in the treatment of atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2005;53: S70–S77
  • Leung DY, Hanifin JM, Charlesworth EN, et al. Disease management of atopic dermatitis: a practice parameter [Joint Task Force on Practice Parameters, representing the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, the American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, and the Joint Council of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. Work Group on Atopic Dermatitis]. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1997;79: 197–211
  • Darsow U, Lubbe J, Taieb A, et al. Position paper on diagnosis and treatment of atopic dermatitis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2005;19:286–95
  • Correale CE, Walker C, Murphy L, Craig TJ. Atopic dermatitis: a review of diagnosis and treatment. Am Fam Physician 1999;60:1191–8
  • Chamlin SL, Frieden IJ, Fowler A, et al. Ceramide-dominant, barrier-repair lipids improve childhood atopic dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 2001;137:1110–2
  • Stiefel Laboratories I. MimyX™ Cream: 510(k) summary of the safety and effectiveness. Available at: www.fda.gov/cdrh/pdf4/K041342.pdf-08–15–2005
  • US Food & Drug Administration. Is the product a medical device? Available at: www.fda.gov/cdrh/devadevice/312.html-10–03–2006
  • Ceragenix Corporation. Epiceram® skin barrier emulsion: 510(k) summary. Available at: www.fda.gov/cdrh/pdf5/K052643.pdf-05–08–2006
  • Abramovits W, Boguniewicz M; Adult Atopiclair Study Group. A multicenter, randomized, vehicle-controlled clinical study to examine the efficacy and safety of MAS063DP (Atopiclair) in the management of mild to moderate atopic dermatitis in adults. J Drugs Dermatol 2006;5: 236–44
  • Schmid-Ott G, Jaeger B, Meyer S, et al. Different expression of cytokine and membrane molecules by circulating lymphocytes on acute mental stress in patients with atopic dermatitis in comparison with healthy controls. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001;108:455–62
  • Schmid-Ott G, Jaeger B, Adamek C, et al. Levels of circulating CD8(+) T lymphocytes, natural killer cells, and eosinophils increase upon acute psychosocial stress in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001;107: 171–7
  • Sulzberger MB, Witten VH, Smith CC. Hydrocortisone (compound F) acetate ointment in dermatological therapy. J Am Med Assoc 1953;151:468–72
  • Hughes J, Rustin M. Corticosteroids. Clin Dermatol 1997;15:715–21
  • Schafer-Korting M, Kleuser B, Ahmed M, et al. Glucocorticoids for human skin: new aspects of the mechanism of action. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 2005;18:103–14
  • Leung DY, Bloom JW. Update on glucocorticoid action and resistance. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003;111:3–22
  • Aberer W, Romani N, Elbe A, Stingl G. Effects of physico-chemical agents on murine epidermal Langerhans cells and Thy-1-positive dendritic epidermal cells. J Immunol 1986;136:1210–6
  • Hoetzenecker W, Meingassner JG, Ecker R, et al. Corticosteroids but not pimecrolimus affect viability, maturation and immune function of murine epidermal Langerhans cells. J Invest Dermatol 2004;122:673–84
  • Barnes PJ. Corticosteroid effects on cell signalling. Eur Respir J 2006;27:413–26
  • Del Rosso J, Friedlander SF. Corticosteroids: options in the era of steroid-sparing therapy. J Am Acad Dermatol 2005;53:S50–S58
  • Hanifin JM, Cooper KD, Ho VC, et al. Guidelines of care for atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2004;50:391–404
  • Hoare C, Li Wan PA, Williams H. Systematic review of treatments for atopic eczema. Health Technol Assess 2000;4:1–191
  • National Institute for Clinical Excellence. Frequency of application of topical corticosteroids for atopic eczema. Technology appraisal 81. 2004
  • Turpeinen M, Salo OP, Leisti S. Effect of percutaneous absorption of hydrocortisone on adrenocortical responsiveness in infants with severe skin disease. Br J Dermatol 1986;115:475–84
  • Aalto-Korte K, Turpeinen M. Pharmacokinetics of topical hydro cortisone at plasma level after applications once or twice daily in patients with widespread dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 1995;133:259–63
  • Kao JS, Fluhr JW, Man MQ, et al. Short-term glucocorticoid treatment compromises both permeability barrier homeostasis and stratum corneum integrity: inhibition of epidermal lipid synthesis accounts for functional abnormalities. J Invest Dermatol 2003;120:456–64
  • Aalto-Korte K, Turpeinen M. Bone mineral density in patients with atopic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 1997;136:172–5
  • Hengge UR, Ruzicka T, Schwartz RA, Cork MJ. Adverse effects of topical glucocorticosteroids. J Am Acad Dermatol 2006;54:1–15
  • Romano PE. Fluorinated ocular/periocular corticosteroids have caused death as well as glaucoma in children. Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2003;31:279–80
  • Hebert AA, Friedlander SF, Allen DB. Topical fluticasone propionate lotion does not cause HPA axis suppression. J Pediatr 2006;149:378–82
  • Eichenfield LF, Miller BH. Two randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies of fluticasone propionate lotion 0.05% for the treatment of atopic dermatitis in subjects from 3 months of age. J Am Acad Dermatol 2006;54: 715–7
  • Friedlander SF, Hebert AA, Allen DB. Safety of fluticasone propionate cream 0.05% for the treatment of severe and extensive atopic dermatitis in children as young as 3 months. J Am Acad Dermatol 2002;46: 387–93
  • Charman CR, Morris AD, Williams HC. Topical corticosteroid phobia in patients with atopic eczema. Br J Dermatol 2000;142:931–6
  • Bornhövd EC, Burgdorf WH, Wollenberg A. Immunomodulatory macrolactams for topical treatment of inflammatory skin diseases. Curr Opin Investig Drugs 2002;3:708–12
  • Grassberger M, Baumruker T, Enz A, et al. A novel anti-inflammatory drug, SDZ ASM 981, for the treatment of skin diseases: in vitro pharmacology. Br J Dermatol 1999;141: 264–73
  • Protopic [prescribing information]. Deerfield (IL): Astellas Pharma US, Inc., 2006
  • Elidel [prescribing information]. East Hanover (NJ): Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation; 2006
  • Ruzicka T, Bieber T, Schöpf E, et al. A short-term trial of tacrolimus ointment for atopic dermatitis. New Engl J Med 1997;337:816–21
  • Boguniewicz M, Fiedler VC, Raimer S, et al. A randomized, vehicle-controlled trial of tacrolimus ointment for treatment of atopic dermatitis in children [Pediatric Tacrolimus Study Group]. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998;102:637–44
  • Reitamo S, Wollenberg A, Schöpf E, et al. Safety and efficacy of 1 year of tacrolimus ointment monotherapy in adults with atopic dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 2000;136: 999–1006
  • Kang S, Lucky AW, Pariser D, et al. Long-term safety and efficacy of tacrolimus ointment for the treatment of atopic dermatitis in children. J Am Acad Dermatol 2001;44:S58–S64
  • Paller A, Eichenfield LF, Leung DY, et al. A 12-week study of tacrolimus ointment for the treatment of atopic dermatitis in pediatric patients. J Am Acad Dermatol 2001;44:S47–S57
  • Reitamo S. Tacrolimus: a new topical immunomodulatory therapy for atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001;107:445–8
  • Meurer M, Fölster-Holst R, Wozel G, et al. Pimecrolimus cream in the long-term management of atopic dermatitis in adults: a six-month study. Dermatology 2002;205:271–7
  • Eichenfield LF, Lucky AW, Boguniewicz M, et al. Safety and efficacy of pimecrolimus (ASM 981) cream 1% in the treatment of mild and moderate atopic dermatitis in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Dermatol 2002;46:495–504
  • Wahn U, Bos JD, Goodfield M, et al. Efficacy and safety of pimecrolimus cream in the long-term management of atopic dermatitis in children. Pediatrics 2002;110:e2
  • Meurer M, Fartasch M, Albrecht G, et al. Long-term efficacy and safety of pimecrolimus cream 1% in adults with moderate atopic dermatitis. Dermatology 2004;208:365–72
  • Luger TA, Lahfa M, Fölster-Holst R, et al. Long-term safety and tolerability of pimecrolimus cream 1% and topical corticosteroids in adults with moderate to severe atopic dermatitis. J Dermatolog Treat 2004;15: 169–78
  • Breuer K, Braeutigam M, Kapp A, Werfel T. Influence of pimecrolimus cream 1% on different morphological signs of eczema in infants with atopic dermatitis. Dermatology 2004;209:314–20
  • Kapp A, Papp K, Bingham A, et al. Long-term management of atopic dermatitis in infants with topical pimecrolimus, a nonsteroid anti-inflammatory drug. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2002;110:277–84
  • Papp KA, Werfel T, Fölster-Holst R, et al. Long-term control of atopic dermatitis with pimecrolimus cream 1% in infants and young children: a two-year study. J Am Acad Dermatol 2005;52: 240–6
  • Drake L, Prendergast M, Maher R, et al. The impact of tacrolimus ointment on health-related quality of life of adult and pediatric patients with atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2001;44:S65–S72
  • McKenna SP, Whalley D, de Prost Y, et al. Treatment of paediatric atopic dermatitis with pimecrolimus (Elidel, SDZ ASM 981): impact on quality of life and health-related quality of life. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2006;20:248–54
  • Whalley D, Huels J, McKenna SP, Van Assche D. The benefit of pimecrolimus (Elidel, SDZ ASM 981) on parents’ quality of life in the treatment of pediatric atopic dermatitis. Pediatrics 2002;110: 1133–6
  • Staab D, Kaufmann R, Brautigam M, Wahn U. Treatment of infants with atopic eczema with pimecrolimus cream 1% improves parents’ quality of life: a multicenter, randomized trial. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2005;16:527–33
  • Ho VC, Gupta A, Kaufmann R, et al. Safety and efficacy of nonsteroid pimecrolimus cream 1% in the treatment of atopic dermatitis in infants. J Pediatr 2003;142:155–62
  • Queille-Roussel C, Paul C, Duteil L, et al. The new topical ascomycin derivative SDZ ASM 981 does not induce skin atrophy when applied to normal skin for 4 weeks: a randomized, double-blind controlled study. Br J Dermatol 2001;144: 507–13
  • Harper J, Smith C, Rubins A, et al. A multicenter study of the pharmacokinetics of tacrolimus ointment after first and repeated application to children with atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 2005;124:695–9
  • Hultsch T, Kapp A, Spergel J. Immunomodulation and safety of topical calcineurin inhibitors for the treatment of atopic dermatitis. Dermatology 2005;211:174–87
  • Lakhanpaul M, Davies T, Allen BR, Schneider D. Low systemic exposure in infants with atopic dermatitis in a 1-year pharmacokinetic study with pimecrolimus cream 1%. Exp Dermatol 2006;15:138–41
  • Fonacier L, Spergel J, Charlesworth EN, et al. Report of the Topical Calcineurin Inhibitor Task Force of the American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology and the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005;115:1249–53
  • Ring J, Barker J, Behrendt H, et al. Review of the potential photo-cocarcinogenicity of topical calcineurin inhibitors: portion statement of the European Dermatology Forum. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2005;19:663–71
  • Lebwohl M, Gower T. A safety assessment of topical calcineurin inhibitors in the treatment of atopic dermatitis. Medscape 2006;8:8
  • Bieber T, Cork M, Ellis C, et al. Consensus statement on the safety profile of topical calcineurin inhibitors. Dermatology 2005;211:77–8
  • Berger TG, Duvic M, Van Voorhees AS, et al. The use of topical calcineurin inhibitors in dermatology: safety concerns. Report of the American Academy of Dermatology Association Task Force. J Am Acad Dermatol 2006;54:818–23
  • Fonacier L, Charlesworth EN, Spergel JM, Leung DY. The black box warning for topical calcineurin inhibitors: looking outside the box. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2006;97:117–20
  • Doherty V, Sylvester DG, Kennedy CT, et al. Treatment of itching in atopic eczema with antihistamines with a low sedative profile. Br Med J 1989;298:96
  • Klein PA, Clark RA. An evidence-based review of the efficacy of antihistamines in relieving pruritus in atopic dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 1999;135:1522–5
  • Leung DY. Role of Staphylococcus aureus in atopic dermatitis. Atopic dermatitis. New York: Marcel Dekker; 2006
  • Sidbury R, Hanifin JM. Systemic therapy of atopic dermatitis. Clin Exp Dermatol 2000;25:559–66
  • Zonneveld IM, De Rie MA, Beljaards RC, et al. The long-term safety and efficacy of cyclosporin in severe refractory atopic dermatitis: a comparison of two dosage regimens. Br J Dermatol 1996;135(Suppl 48):15–20
  • Lim KK, Su WP, Schroeter AL, et al. Cyclosporine in the treatment of dermatologic disease: an update. Mayo Clin Proc 1996;71:1182–91
  • Granlund H, Erkko P, Sinisalo M, Reitamo S. Cyclosporin in atopic dermatitis: time to relapse and effect of intermittent therapy. Br J Dermatol 1995;132:106–12
  • Naeyaert JM, Lachapelle JM, Degreef H, et al. Cyclosporin in atopic dermatitis: review of the literature and outline of a Belgian consensus. Dermatology 1999;198:145–52
  • Harper JI, Ahmed I, Barclay G, et al. Cyclosporin for severe child hood atopic dermatitis: short course versus continuous therapy. Br J Dermatol 2000;142:52–8
  • Neuber K, Schwartz I, Itschert G, Dieck AT. Treatment of atopic eczema with oral mycophenolate mofetil. Br J Dermatol 2000;143:385–91
  • Grundmann-Kollmann M, Podda M, Ochsendorf F, et al. Myco phenolate mofetil is effective in the treatment of atopic dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 2001;137:870–3
  • Berth-Jones J, Takwale A, Tan E, et al. Azathioprine in severe adult atopic dermatitis: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial. Br J Dermatol 2002;147:324–30
  • Buckley DA, Baldwin P, Rogers S. The use of azathioprine in severe adult atopic eczema. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 1998;11:137–40
  • Meggitt SJ, Reynolds NJ. Azathioprine for atopic dermatitis. Clin Exp Dermatol 2001;26:369–75
  • Abeck D, Schmidt T, Fesq H, et al. Long-term efficacy of medium-dose UVA1 phototherapy in atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2000;42:254–7

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.