A Pharmacogenetics-Based Approach to Managing Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease: Current Perspectives and Future Steps

References

• Peery AF, Crockett SD, Murphy CC, et al. Burden and cost of gastrointestinal, liver, and pancreatic diseases in the United States: update 2021. Gastroenterology. 2022;162(2):621–644. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2021.10.017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mathews SC, Izmailyan S, Brito FA, Yamal JM, Mikhail O, Revere FL. Prevalence and financial burden of digestive diseases in a commercially insured population. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2022;20(7):1480–1487.e1487. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2021.06.047
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS). Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ). ClinCalc DrugStats Database version 2022.08. Rockville, MD; 2013–2020.
   Google Scholar
• Katz PO, Dunbar KB, Schnoll-Sussman FH, Greer KB, Yadlapati R, Spechler SJ. ACG clinical guideline for the diagnosis and management of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Am J Gastroenterol. 2022;117(1):27–56. doi:10.14309/ajg.0000000000001538
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katzka DA, Pandolfino JE, Kahrilas PJ. Phenotypes of gastroesophageal reflux disease: where Rome, Lyon, and Montreal meet. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020;18(4):767–776. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2019.07.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yadlapati R, Gyawali CP, Pandolfino JE; Participants CGCC. AGA clinical practice update on the personalized approach to the evaluation and management of GERD: expert review. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2022;20(5):984–994.e981. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2022.01.025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armstrong D, Bennett JR, Blum AL, et al. The endoscopic assessment of esophagitis: a progress report on observer agreement. Gastroenterology. 1996;111(1):85–92. doi:10.1053/gast.1996.v111.pm8698230
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gyawali CP, Fass R. Management of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Gastroenterology. 2018;154(2):302–318. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2017.07.049
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gyawali CP, Kahrilas PJ, Savarino E, et al. Modern diagnosis of GERD: the Lyon consensus. Gut. 2018;67(7):1351–1362. doi:10.1136/gutjnl-2017-314722
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cicali EJ, Blake K, Gong Y, et al. Novel implementation of genotype-guided proton pump inhibitor medication therapy in children: a pilot, randomized, multisite pragmatic trial. Clin Transl Sci. 2019;12(2):172–179. doi:10.1111/cts.12589
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ichikawa H, Sugimoto M, Sugimoto K, Andoh A, Furuta T. Rapid metabolizer genotype of CYP2C19 is a risk factor of being refractory to proton pump inhibitor therapy for reflux esophagitis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2016;31(4):716–726. doi:10.1111/jgh.13233
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang M, Blake KV, Lima JJ, et al. Genotype tailored treatment of mild symptomatic acid reflux in children with uncontrolled asthma (GenARA): rationale and methods. Contemp Clin Trials. 2019;78:27–33. doi:10.1016/j.cct.2019.01.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabet S, McGhee JE. New guidance on cytochrome P450 2C19 phenotype-based use of proton pump inhibitors. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2021;72(5):697–699. doi:10.1097/MPG.0000000000003082
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franciosi JP, Mougey EB, Williams A, et al. Association between CYP2C19*17 alleles and pH probe testing outcomes in children with symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux. J Clin Pharmacol. 2018;58(1):89–96. doi:10.1002/jcph.977
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caudle KE, Dunnenberger HM, Freimuth RR, et al. Standardizing terms for clinical pharmacogenetic test results: consensus terms from the Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium (CPIC). Genet Med. 2017;19(2):215–223. doi:10.1038/gim.2016.87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lima JJ, Thomas CD, Barbarino J, et al. Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium (CPIC) guideline for CYP2C19 and proton pump inhibitor dosing. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2021;109(6):1417–1423. doi:10.1002/cpt.2015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PharmGKB. Gene-specific information tables for CYP2C19. Available from: https://www.pharmgkb.org/page/cyp2c19RefMaterials. Accessed May 18, 2023.
   Google Scholar
• Scott SA, Sangkuhl K, Shuldiner AR, et al. PharmGKB summary: very important pharmacogene information for cytochrome P450, family 2, subfamily C, polypeptide 19. Pharmacogenet Genomics. 2012;22(2):159–165. doi:10.1097/FPC.0b013e32834d4962
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sim SC, Risinger C, Dahl ML, et al. A common novel CYP2C19 gene variant causes ultrarapid drug metabolism relevant for the drug response to proton pump inhibitors and antidepressants. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2006;79(1):103–113. doi:10.1016/j.clpt.2005.10.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ionova Y, Ashenhurst J, Zhan J, et al. CYP2C19 allele frequencies in over 2.2 million direct-to-consumer genetics research participants and the potential implication for prescriptions in a large health system. Clin Transl Sci. 2020;13(6):1298–1306. doi:10.1111/cts.12830
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium (CPIC). CYP2C19 frequency table. Available from: https://files.cpicpgx.org/data/report/current/frequency/CYP2C19_frequency_table.xlsx. Accessed February 15, 2023.
   Google Scholar
• Furuta T, Sugimoto M, Kodaira C, et al. CYP2C19 genotype is associated with symptomatic recurrence of GERD during maintenance therapy with low-dose lansoprazole. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2009;65(7):693–698. doi:10.1007/s00228-009-0628-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu XP, Xu JM, Hu YM, Mei Q, Xu XH. Effects of CYP2C19 genetic polymorphism on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of omeprazole in Chinese people. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2007;32(5):517–524. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2710.2007.00851.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunfeld NG, Mathot RA, Touw DJ, et al. Effect of CYP2C19*2 and *17 mutations on pharmacodynamics and kinetics of proton pump inhibitors in Caucasians. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2008;65(5):752–760. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2125.2007.03094.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lou HY, Chang CC, Sheu MT, Chen YC, Ho HO. Optimal dose regimens of esomeprazole for gastric acid suppression with minimal influence of the CYP2C19 polymorphism. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2009;65(1):55–64. doi:10.1007/s00228-008-0552-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunfeld NG, Touw DJ, Mathot RA, et al. A comparison of the acid-inhibitory effects of esomeprazole and pantoprazole in relation to pharmacokinetics and CYP2C19 polymorphism. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2010;31(1):150–159. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2009.04150.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gawrońska-Szklarz B, Adamiak-Giera U, Wyska E, et al. CYP2C19 polymorphism affects single-dose pharmacokinetics of oral pantoprazole in healthy volunteers. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2012;68(9):1267–1274. doi:10.1007/s00228-012-1252-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahara S, Sugimoto M, Uotani T, et al. Twice-daily dosing of esomeprazole effectively inhibits acid secretion in CYP2C19 rapid metabolisers compared with twice-daily omeprazole, rabeprazole or lansoprazole. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2013;38(9):1129–1137. doi:10.1111/apt.12492
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Payan M, Rouini MR, Tajik N, Ghahremani MH, Tahvilian R. Hydroxylation index of omeprazole in relation to CYP2C19 polymorphism and sex in a healthy Iranian population. Daru. 2014;22(1):81. doi:10.1186/s40199-014-0081-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Furuta T, Shirai N, Watanabe F, et al. Effect of cytochrome P4502C19 genotypic differences on cure rates for gastroesophageal reflux disease by lansoprazole. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2002;72(4):453–460. doi:10.1067/mcp.2002.127637
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen WY, Chang WL, Tsai YC, Cheng HC, Lu CC, Sheu BS. Double-dosed pantoprazole accelerates the sustained symptomatic response in overweight and obese patients with reflux esophagitis in Los Angeles grades A and B. Am J Gastroenterol. 2010;105(5):1046–1052. doi:10.1038/ajg.2009.632
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheu BS, Cheng HC, Yeh YC, Chang WL. CYP2C19 genotypes determine the efficacy of on-demand therapy of pantoprazole for reflux esophagitis as Los-Angeles grades C and D. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012;27(1):104–109. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1746.2011.06848.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franciosi JP, Mougey EB, Williams A, et al. Association between CYP2C19 extensive metabolizer phenotype and childhood anti-reflux surgery following failed proton pump inhibitor medication treatment. Eur J Pediatr. 2018;177(1):69–77. doi:10.1007/s00431-017-3051-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Rouby N, Lima JJ, Johnson JA. Proton pump inhibitors: from CYP2C19 pharmacogenetics to precision medicine. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2018;14(4):447–460. doi:10.1080/17425255.2018.1461835
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shirai N, Furuta T, Xiao F, et al. Comparison of lansoprazole and famotidine for gastric acid inhibition during the daytime and night-time in different CYP2C19 genotype groups. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2002;16(4):837–846. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2036.2002.01229.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ieiri I, Kishimoto Y, Okochi H, et al. Comparison of the kinetic disposition of and serum gastrin change by lansoprazole versus rabeprazole during an 8-day dosing scheme in relation to CYP2C19 polymorphism. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2001;57(6–7):485–492. doi:10.1007/s002280100342
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adachi K, Katsube T, Kawamura A, et al. CYP2C19 genotype status and intragastric pH during dosing with lansoprazole or rabeprazole. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2000;14(10):1259–1266. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2036.2000.00840.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugimoto M, Shirai N, Nishino M, et al. Comparison of acid inhibition with standard dosages of proton pump inhibitors in relation to CYP2C19 genotype in Japanese. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2014;70(9):1073–1078. doi:10.1007/s00228-014-1713-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howden CW, Metz DC, Hunt B, et al. Dose-response evaluation of the antisecretory effect of continuous infusion intravenous lansoprazole regimens over 48 h. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2006;23(7):975–984. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2006.02849.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Y, Zhang H, Meng L, et al. Influence of CYP2C19 on the relationship between pharmacokinetics and intragastric pH of omeprazole administered by successive intravenous infusions in Chinese healthy volunteers. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2010;66(6):563–569. doi:10.1007/s00228-010-0821-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furuta T, Ohashi K, Kosuge K, et al. CYP2C19 genotype status and effect of omeprazole on intragastric pH in humans. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1999;65(5):552–561. doi:10.1016/S0009-9236(99)70075-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li ZS, Zhan XB, Xu GM, Cheng NN, Liao Z. Effect of esomeprazole and rabeprazole on intragastric pH in healthy Chinese: an open, randomized crossover trial. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2007;22(6):815–820. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1746.2006.04709.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shimatani T, Inoue M, Kuroiwa T, Horikawa Y, Mieno H, Nakamura M. Effect of omeprazole 10 mg on intragastric pH in three different CYP2C19 genotypes, compared with omeprazole 20 mg and lafutidine 20 mg, a new H2-receptor antagonist. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2003;18(11–12):1149–1157. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2036.2003.01804.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kee PS, Maggo SDS, Kennedy MA, et al. Omeprazole treatment failure in gastroesophageal reflux disease and genetic variation at the CYP2C locus. Front Genet. 2022;13:869160. doi:10.3389/fgene.2022.869160
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bråten LS, Haslemo T, Jukic MM, et al. A novel CYP2C-haplotype associated with ultrarapid metabolism of escitalopram. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2021;110(3):786–793. doi:10.1002/cpt.2233
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang HJ, Zhang XH, Liu J, et al. Effects of genetic polymorphisms on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of proton pump inhibitors. Pharmacol Res. 2020;152:104606. doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2019.104606
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li H, Meng L, Liu F, Wei JF, Wang YQ. H+/K+-ATPase inhibitors: a patent review. Expert Opin Ther Pat. 2013;23(1):99–111. doi:10.1517/13543776.2013.741121
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun LN, Cao Y, Li YQ, et al. Impact of gastric H+/K+-ATPase rs2733743 on the Intragastric pH-values of dexlansoprazole injection in Chinese subjects. Front Pharmacol. 2017;8:670. doi:10.3389/fphar.2017.00670
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kodaira C, Sugimoto M, Nishino M, et al. Effect of MDR1 C3435T polymorphism on lansoprazole in healthy Japanese subjects. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2009;65(6):593–600. doi:10.1007/s00228-009-0625-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thurber KM, Otto AO, Stricker SL. Proton pump inhibitors: understanding the associated risks and benefits of long-term use. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2023;80(8):487–494. doi:10.1093/ajhp/zxad009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Targownik LE, Fisher DA, Saini SD. AGA clinical practice update on de-prescribing of proton pump inhibitors: expert review. Gastroenterology. 2022;162(4):1334–1342. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2021.12.247
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Protonix (Pantoprazole) [package insert]. Philadelphia, PA: Pfizer Inc.; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Prilosec (Omeprazole) [package insert]. Wilmington DE: AstraZeneca LP; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Prevacid (Lansoprazole) [package insert]. Warren, NJ: Takeda Pharmaceuticals America, Inc.; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Nexium (Esomeprazole) [package insert]. Wilmington DE: AstraZeneca LP; 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Dexilant (Dexlansoprazole) [package insert]. Deerfield, IL: Takeda Pharmaceuticals America, Inc.; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Food and Drug Administration. FDA drug safety communication: possible increased risk of fractures of the hip, wrist, and spine with the use of proton pump inhibitors; 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Food and Drug Administration. FDA drug safety communication: Clostridium difficile associated diarrhea can be associated with stomach acid drugs known as proton pump inhibitors (PPIs). Food and Drug Administration; 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Food and Drug Administration. FDA drug safety communication: low magnesium levels can be associated with long-term use of proton pump inhibitor drugs (PPIs); 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Chen Y, Liu B, Glass K, Du W, Banks E, Kirk M. Use of proton pump inhibitors and the risk of hospitalization for infectious gastroenteritis. PLoS One. 2016;11(12):e0168618. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0168618
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hassing RJ, Verbon A, de Visser H, Hofman A, Stricker BH. Proton pump inhibitors and gastroenteritis. Eur J Epidemiol. 2016;31(10):1057–1063. doi:10.1007/s10654-016-0136-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klepser DG, Collier DS, Cochran GL. Proton pump inhibitors and acute kidney injury: a nested case-control study. BMC Nephrol. 2013;14:150. doi:10.1186/1471-2369-14-150
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blank ML, Parkin L, Paul C, Herbison P. A nationwide nested case-control study indicates an increased risk of acute interstitial nephritis with proton pump inhibitor use. Kidney Int. 2014;86(4):837–844. doi:10.1038/ki.2014.74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antoniou T, Macdonald EM, Hollands S, et al. Proton pump inhibitors and the risk of acute kidney injury in older patients: a population-based cohort study. CMAJ Open. 2015;3(2):E166–E171. doi:10.9778/cmajo.20140074
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chen G, Ning LJ, Qin Y, Zhao B, Mei D, Li XM. Acute kidney injury following the use of different proton pump inhibitor regimens: a real-world analysis of post-marketing surveillance data. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2021;36(1):156–162. doi:10.1111/jgh.15151
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xie Y, Bowe B, Li T, Xian H, Balasubramanian S, Al-Aly Z. Proton pump inhibitors and risk of incident CKD and progression to ESRD. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2016;27(10):3153–3163. doi:10.1681/ASN.2015121377
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arora P, Gupta A, Golzy M, et al. Proton pump inhibitors are associated with increased risk of development of chronic kidney disease. BMC Nephrol. 2016;17(1):112. doi:10.1186/s12882-016-0325-4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lazarus B, Chen Y, Wilson FP, et al. Proton pump inhibitor use and the risk of chronic kidney disease. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176(2):238–246. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2015.7193
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambert AA, Lam JO, Paik JJ, Ugarte-Gil C, Drummond MB, Crowell TA. Risk of community-acquired pneumonia with outpatient proton-pump inhibitor therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2015;10(6):e0128004. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0128004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xie Y, Bowe B, Li T, Xian H, Yan Y, Al-Aly Z. Risk of death among users of proton pump inhibitors: a longitudinal observational cohort study of United States veterans. BMJ Open. 2017;7(6):e015735. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-015735
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toubasi AA, AbuAnzeh RB, Khraisat BR, Al-Sayegh TN, AlRyalat SA. Proton pump inhibitors: current use and the risk of coronavirus infectious disease 2019 development and its related mortality. meta-analysis. Arch Med Res. 2021;52(6):656–659. doi:10.1016/j.arcmed.2021.03.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furuta T, Shirai N, Xiao F, Ohashi K, Ishizaki T. Effect of high-dose lansoprazole on intragastic pH in subjects who are homozygous extensive metabolizers of cytochrome P4502C19. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2001;70(5):484–492. doi:10.1067/mcp.2001.119721
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang WH, Huang JQ, Zheng GF, et al. Head-to-head comparison of H2-receptor antagonists and proton pump inhibitors in the treatment of erosive esophagitis: a meta-analysis. World J Gastroenterol. 2005;11(26):4067–4077. doi:10.3748/wjg.v11.i26.4067
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El-Serag HB. Epidemiology of non-erosive reflux disease. Digestion. 2008;78(Suppl 1):6–10. doi:10.1159/000151249
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Inadomi JM, Jamal R, Murata GH, et al. Step-down management of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Gastroenterology. 2001;121(5):1095–1100. doi:10.1053/gast.2001.28649
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swen JJ, Nijenhuis M, de Boer A, et al. Pharmacogenetics: from bench to byte-an update of guidelines. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2011;89(5):662–673. doi:10.1038/clpt.2011.34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KNMP. RDPA. Dutch Pharmacogenetics Working Group (DPWG). Pharmacogenetic guidelines [Internet]. Netherlands. Dutch Pharmacogenetics Working Group Recommendations; 2020. Available from: https://www.knmp.nl/media/1058. Accessed May 18, 2023.
   Google Scholar
• Food and Drug Administration. FDA table of pharmacogenomic biomarkers in drug labeling; 2022.
   Google Scholar
• Food and Drug Administration. FDA table of pharmacogenetics association; 2022.
   Google Scholar
• Na JY, Jeon I, Yoon J, et al. Influence of CYP2C19 polymorphisms on the pharmacokinetics of omeprazole in elderly subjects. Clin Pharmacol Drug Dev. 2021;10(12):1469–1477. doi:10.1002/cpdd.966
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lima JJ, Lang JE, Mougey EB, et al. Association of CYP2C19 polymorphisms and lansoprazole-associated respiratory adverse effects in children. J Pediatr. 2013;163(3):686–691. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.03.017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernal CJ, Aka I, Carroll RJ, et al. CYP2C19 phenotype and risk of proton pump inhibitor-associated infections. Pediatrics. 2019;144(6):e20190857. doi:10.1542/peds.2019-0857
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pratt VM, Del Tredici AL, Hachad H, et al. Recommendations for clinical CYP2C19 genotyping allele selection: a report of the association for molecular pathology. J Mol Diagn. 2018;20(3):269–276. doi:10.1016/j.jmoldx.2018.01.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elchynski AL, Cicali EJ, Ferrer Del Busto MC, et al. Determining the potential clinical value of panel-based pharmacogenetic testing in patients with chronic pain or gastroesophageal reflux disease. Pharmacogenomics J. 2021;21(6):657–663. doi:10.1038/s41397-021-00244-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemke L. Reimbursement of Pharmacogenetic Tests at UF Health. Denver, CO: Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium; 2022.
   Google Scholar
• Administration UFD. Drug development and drug interactions: table of substrates, inhibitors and inducers; 2022.
   Google Scholar
• Blume H, Donath F, Warnke A, Schug BS. Pharmacokinetic drug interaction profiles of proton pump inhibitors. Drug Saf. 2006;29(9):769–784. doi:10.2165/00002018-200629090-00002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desta Z, Zhao X, Shin JG, Flockhart DA. Clinical significance of the cytochrome P450 2C19 genetic polymorphism. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2002;41(12):913–958. doi:10.2165/00003088-200241120-00002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calabresi L, Pazzucconi F, Ferrara S, Di Paolo A, Tacca MD, Sirtori C. Pharmacokinetic interactions between omeprazole/pantoprazole and clarithromycin in health volunteers. Pharmacol Res. 2004;49(5):493–499. doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2003.10.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheer SM, Prakash A, Faulds D, Lamb HM. Pantoprazole: an update of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic use in the management of acid-related disorders. Drugs. 2003;63(1):101–133. doi:10.2165/00003495-200363010-00006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wedemeyer RS, Blume H. Pharmacokinetic drug interaction profiles of proton pump inhibitors: an update. Drug Saf. 2014;37(4):201–211. doi:10.1007/s40264-014-0144-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee CR, Luzum JA, Sangkuhl K, et al. Clinical pharmacogenetics implementation consortium guideline for CYP2C19 genotype and clopidogrel therapy: 2022 update. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2022;112(5):959–967. doi:10.1002/cpt.2526
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plavix (Clopidogrel) [Prescribing Information]. Bristol-myers squibb/sanofi; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Andersson T, Hassan-Alin M, Hasselgren G, Röhss K, Weidolf L. Pharmacokinetic studies with esomeprazole, the (S)-isomer of omeprazole. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2001;40(6):411–426. doi:10.2165/00003088-200140060-00003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marom H, Agranat I. Racemization of the gastrointestinal antisecretory chiral drug esomeprazole magnesium via the pyramidal inversion mechanism: a theoretical study. Chirality. 2010;22(9):798–807. doi:10.1002/chir.20839
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jana K, Bandyopadhyay T, Ganguly B. Stereoselective metabolism of omeprazole by cytochrome P450 2C19 and 3A4: mechanistic insights from DFT study. J Phys Chem B. 2018;122(22):5765–5775. doi:10.1021/acs.jpcb.8b01179
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shin JS, Lee JY, Cho KH, et al. The pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and safety of oral doses of ilaprazole 10, 20 and 40 mg and esomeprazole 40 mg in healthy subjects: a randomised, open-label crossover study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2014;40(5):548–561.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galmiche JP, Bruley Des Varannes S, Ducrotté P, et al. Tenatoprazole, a novel proton pump inhibitor with a prolonged plasma half-life: effects on intragastric pH and comparison with esomeprazole in healthy volunteers. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2004;19(6):655–662. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2004.01893.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunt RH, Armstrong D, James C, et al. Effect on intragastric pH of a PPI with a prolonged plasma half-life: comparison between tenatoprazole and esomeprazole on the duration of acid suppression in healthy male volunteers. Am J Gastroenterol. 2005;100(9):1949–1956. doi:10.1111/j.1572-0241.2005.41956.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le TK, Park YJ, Cha GS, Oktavia FARH, Kim DH, Yun CH. Roles of human liver cytochrome P450 enzymes in tenatoprazole metabolism. Pharmaceutics. 2022;15(1):23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kinoshita Y, Kusano M, Iwakiri K, Fujishiro M, Tachikawa N, Haruma K. Efficacy and safety profile of Z-215 (azeloprazole sodium), a proton pump inhibitor, compared with rabeprazole sodium in patients with reflux esophagitis: a Phase II, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, comparative study. Curr Ther Res Clin Exp. 2018;88:26–34. doi:10.1016/j.curtheres.2018.03.004
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yang E, Kim S, Kim B, et al. Night-time gastric acid suppression by tegoprazan compared to vonoprazan or esomeprazole. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2022;88(7):3288–3296. doi:10.1111/bcp.15268
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho YK, Kim JH, Kim HS, et al. Randomised clinical trial: comparison of tegoprazan and lansoprazole as maintenance therapy for healed mild erosive oesophagitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2023;57(1):72–80. doi:10.1111/apt.17255
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenkins H, Sakurai Y, Nishimura A, et al. Randomised clinical trial: safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of repeated doses of TAK-438 (vonoprazan), a novel potassium-competitive acid blocker, in healthy male subjects. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2015;41(7):636–648. doi:10.1111/apt.13121
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lightdale JR, Gremse DA, Heitlinger LA. Section on gastroenterology Hp, and nutrition. Gastroesophageal reflux: management guidance for the pediatrician. Pediatrics. 2013;131(5):e1684–e1695. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-0421
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramsey LB, Prows CA, Chidambaran V, et al. Implementation of CYP2D6-guided opioid therapy at Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2023. doi:10.1093/ajhp/zxad025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gammal RS, Fieg E. Pharmacist and genetic counselor collaboration in pharmacogenomics. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2022;79(18):1516–1520. doi:10.1093/ajhp/zxac168
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar