Publication Cover
Inhalation Toxicology
International Forum for Respiratory Research
Volume 22, 2010 - Issue 8
222
Views
16
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Options for incorporating children’s inhaled dose into human health risk assessment

, , &
Pages 627-647 | Received 02 Nov 2009, Accepted 11 Jan 2010, Published online: 11 Jun 2010

References

  • Abraham K, Mielke H, Huisinga W, Gundert-Remy U. 2005. Elevated internal exposure of children in simulated acute inhalation of volatile organic compounds: Effects of concentration and duration. Arch Toxicol 79:63–73.
  • Adkins B. 2000. Development of neonatal Th1/Th2 function. Int Rev Immunol 19:157–171.
  • Alcorn J, McNamara PJ. 2002. Ontogeny of hepatic and renal systemic clearance pathways in infants. Part II. Clin Pharmacokinet 41:1077–1094.
  • Arcus-Arth A, Blaisdell, RJ. 2007. Statistical distributions of daily breathing rates for narrow age groups of infants and children. Risk Anal 27:97–110.
  • Asgharian B, Ménache MG, Miller FJ. 2004. Modeling age-related particle deposition in humans. J Aerosol Med 17:213–224.
  • Araujo V, Ruiz E, Llovera M, Tokashiki N, Abellán C, Domínguez C. 1998. Impact of oxygen therapy on antioxidant status in newborns. Relationship with infection risk. Biofactors 8:143–147.
  • Barton H, Cogliano J, Flowers L, Valcovic L, Setzer WR, Woodruff TJ. 2005. Assessing susceptibility from early-life exposure to carcinogens. Environ Health Perspect 113:1125–1133.
  • Becquemin MH, Yu CP, Roy M, Bouchikhi A, Teillac A. 1991. Total deposition of inhaled particles related to age: Comparison with age dependent model calculations. Radiat Prot Dosim 38:23–28.
  • Bennett WD, Zeman KL. 1998. Deposition of fine particles in children spontaneously breathing at rest. Inhal Toxicol 10:831–842.
  • Bennett WD, Zeman KL 2004. Effect of body size on breathing pattern and fine particle deposition in children. J Appl Physiol 97:821–826.
  • Bennett WD, Zeman KL, Jarabek AM. 2008. Nasal contribution to breathing and fine particle deposition in children versus adults. J Toxicol Environ Health A 71:227–237.
  • Bobak M, Leon DA. 1999. The effect of air pollution and infant mortality appears specific for respiratory causes in the postneonatal period. Epidemiology 10:666–670.
  • CalOEHHA (California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment). 2008. Air Toxics Risk Assessment Guidelines. Technical Support Document for the Derivation of Noncancer Reference Exposure Levels. Available at: http://www.oehha.ca.gov/air/hot_spots/2008/NoncancerTSD_final.pdf. Accessed June 26, 2009.
  • Clewell HJ, Gentry PR, Covington TR, Sarangapani R, Teeguarden JG. 2004. Evaluation of the potential impact of age-and gender-specific pharmacokinetic differences on tissue dosimetry. Toxicol Sci 79:381–393.
  • Cohen BS, Asgharian B. 1990. Deposition of ultrafine particles in the upper airways: An empirical analysis. J Aerosol Sci 21:789–795.
  • Dietert RR, Piepenbrink MS. 2008. The managed immune system: Protecting the womb to delay the tomb. Hum Exp Toxicol 27:129–134.
  • Dorne JLCM, Walton K, Renwick AG. 2001. Uncertainty factors for chemical risk assessment: Human variability in the pharmacokinetics of CYP1A2 probe substrates. Food Chem Toxicol 39:681–696.
  • Dunnill MS. 1962. Postnatal growth of the lung. Thorax 17:329–333.
  • Evans MJ, Fanucchi MV, Baker GL, Van Winkle LS, Pantle LM, Nishio SJ, Schelegle ES, Gershwin LJ, Miller LA, Hyde DM, Sannes PL, Plopper CG. 2003. Atypical development of the tracheal basement membrane zone of infant rhesus monkeys exposed to ozone and allergen. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 285:L931–L999.
  • Faustman EM, Silbernagel SM, Fenske RA, Burbacher TM, Ponce RA. 2000. Mechanisms underlying children’s susceptibility to environmental toxicants. Environ Health Perspect 108(Suppl 1):13–21.
  • Firestone M, Moya J, Cohen-Hubal E, Zartarian V, Xue J. 2007. Identifying childhood age groups for exposure assessments and monitoring. Risk Anal 27:701–714.
  • Firestone M, Sonawane B, Barone S, Salmon AG, Brown JP, Hattis D, Woodruff T. 2008. Potential new approaches for children’s inhalation risk assessment. J Toxicol Environ Health A 71:208–217.
  • Foos B, Marty M, Schwartz J, Bennett W, Moya J, Jarabek AM, Salmon AJ. 2008. Focusing on children’s inhalation dosimetry and health effects for risk assessment: An introduction. J Toxicol Environ Health 71:149–165.
  • Foos B, Sonawane B. 2008. Overview: Workshop on children’s inhalation dosimetry and health effects for risk assessment. J Toxicol Environ Health A 71:147–148.
  • Gent JF, Triche EW, Holford TR, Belanger K, Bracken MB, Beckett WS, Leaderer BP. 2003. Association of low level ozone and fine particles with respiratory symptoms in children with asthma. JAMA 290:1859–1867.
  • Ginsberg G. 2003. Assessing cancer risks from short-term exposures in children. Risk Anal 23:19–34.
  • Ginsberg G, Hattis D, Sonawane B, Russ A, Banati P, Kozlak M, Smolenski S, Goble R. 2002. Evaluation of child/adult pharmacokinetic differences from a database derived from the therapeutic drug literature. Toxicol Sci 66:185–200.
  • Ginsberg GL, Hattis D, Sonawane B. 2004. Incorporating pharmacokinetic differences between children and adults in assessing children’s risks to environmental toxicants. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 198:164–183.
  • Ginsberg GL, Foos BP, Firestone MP. 2005. Review and analysis of inhalation dosimetry methods for application to children’s risk assessment. J Toxicol Environ Health A 68:573–615.
  • Ginsberg GL, Asgharian B, Kimbell JS, Ultman JS, Jarabek AM. 2008. Modeling approaches for estimating the dosimetry of inhaled toxicants in children. J Toxicol Environ Health A 71:166–195.
  • Gitto E, Reiter RJ, Karbownik M, Xian-Tan D, Barberi I. 2001. Respiratory distress syndrome in the newborn: Role of oxidative stress. Intensive Care Med 27:1116–1123.
  • Ha E-H, Lee J-T, Kim H, Hong Y-C, Lee B-E, Park H-S, Christiani DC. 2003. Infant susceptibility of mortality to air pollution in Seoul, South Korea. Pediatrics 111:284–290.
  • Harry GJ, Schmitt TJ, Gong Z, Brown H, Zawia N, Evans HL. 1996. Lead-induced alterations of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in the developing rat brain. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 139:84–93.
  • Harvey RP, Hamby DM. 2002. Age-specific uncertainty in particulate deposition for 1μm AMAD particles using the ICRP 66 lung model. Health Phys 82:807–816.
  • Hattis D, Ginsberg G, Sonawane B, Smolenski S, Russ A, Kozlak M, Goble R. 2003. Differences in pharmacokinetics between children and adults. II. Children’s variability in drug elimination half-lives and in some parameters needed for physiologically-based pharmacokinetic modeling. Risk Anal 23:117–142.
  • Hattis D, Goble R, Russ A, Chu M, Ericson J. 2004. Age-related differences in susceptibility to carcinogenesis: A quantitative analysis of empirical animal bioassay data. Environ Health Perspect 112:1152–1158.
  • Heyder J, Gebhart J, Stahlhofen W, Stuck B. 1982. Biological variability of particle deposition in the human respiratory tract during controlled and spontaneous mouth breathing. Ann Occup Hyg 26:137–147.
  • Hogaboam JP, Moore AJ, Lawrence BP. 2008. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor affects distinct tissue compartments during ontogeny of the immune system. Toxicol Sci 102:160–170.
  • Holt PG, Rowe J, Loh R, Sly PD. 2003. Developmental factors associated with risk for atopic disease: Implications for vaccine strategies in early childhood. Vaccine 21:3432–3435.
  • International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). 1994. Human Respiratory Tract Model for Radiological Protection. Publication 66. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.
  • Johnsrud EK, Koukouritaki SB, Divakaran K, Brunengraber LL, Hines RN, McCarver DG. 2004. Human hepatic CYP2E1 expression during development. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 307:402–407.
  • Kedderis GL. 1997. Extrapolation of in vitro enzyme induction data to humans in vivo. Chem Biol Interact 107:109–121.
  • Kimbell JS, Subramaniam RP. 2001. Use of computational fluid dynamic models for dosimetry of inhaled gases in the nasal passages. Inhal Toxicol 13:325–334.
  • Kimbell JS, Subramaniam RP, Gross EA, Schlosser PM, Morgan KT. 2001. Dosimetry modeling of inhaled formaldehyde: Comparisons of local flux predictions in the rat, monkey, and human nasal passages. Toxicol Sci 64:100–110.
  • Ladics GS, Chapin RE, Hastings KL, Holsapple MP, Makris SL, Sheets LP, Woolhiser MR, Burns-Naas LA. 2005. Developmental neurotoxicology evaluations—Issues with including neurotoxicology and immunotoxicology assessments in reproductive toxicology studies. Toxicol Sci 88:24–29.
  • Larson SD, Schelegle ES, Walby WF, Gershwin LJ, Fanuccihi MV, Evans MJ, Joad JP, Tarkington BK, Hyde DM, Plopper CG. 2004. Postnatal remodeling of the neural components of the epithelial-mesenchymal trophic unit in the proximal airways of infant rhesus monkeys exposed to ozone and allergen. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 194:211–220.
  • Lerman J, Gregory GA, Willis MM, Eger EI. 1984. Age and solubility of volatile anesthetics in blood. Anesthesiology 61:139–143.
  • Loomis D, Castillejos M, Gold DR, McDonnell, W, Borja-Aburto VH. 1999. Air pollution and infant mortality in Mexico City. Epidemiology 10:118–123.
  • Mack CM, Gordon CJ. 2007. Differential sensitivity to anticholinesterase insecticides in the juvenile rat: Effects on thermoregulation. J Toxicol Environ Health A 70:439–444.
  • Mahle DA, Gearhart JM, Grigsby CC, Mattie DR, Barton HA, Lipscomb JC, Cook RS. 2007. Age-dependent partition coefficients for a mixture of volatile organic solvents in Sprague-Dawley rats and humans. J Toxicol Environ Health A 70:1745–1751.
  • Makris S, Raffaele K, Sette W, Seed J. 1998. A retrospective analysis of twelve developmental neurotoxicity studies submitted to the USEPA Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances (OPPTS). Presented to the Science Advisory Panel, December 8–9, 1998.
  • Martonen TB, Musante CJ, Segal RA, Schroeter JD, Hwang D, Dolovich MA, Burton R, Spencer RM, Fleming JS. 2000. Lung models: Strengths and limitations. Respir Care 45:712–736.
  • Martonen TB, Zhang Z. 1993. Deposition of sulfate acid aerosols in the developing human lung. Inhal Toxicol 5:165–187.
  • Meek EC, Carr R, Chambers H, Coban A, Hurley BE, Pittman J, Wagner J, White KR, Chambers JE. 2006. Age-related differences of detoxication and inhibition from twelve organophosphate compounds. Toxicol Sci 90(1 Suppl):302.
  • Melen E, Wickman M, Nordvall SL, van Hage-Hamsten M, and Lindfors A. 2001. Influence of early and current environmental exposure factors on sensitization and outcome of asthma in pre-school children. Allergy 56:646–652.
  • Menache MG, Hofmann W, Ashgarian B, Miller FJ. 2008. Airway geometry models of children’s lungs for use in dosimetry modeling. Inhal Toxicol 20:101–126.
  • Miller FJ, Martonen TB, Menache MG, Graham RC, Spektor DM, Lippman M. 1988. Influence of breathing mode and activity level on the regional deposition of inhaled particles and implications for regulatory standards. Ann Occup Hyg 32(Suppl 1):3–10.
  • Morgan KT, Monticello TM. 1990. Airflow, gas deposition and lesion distribution in the nasal passages. Environ Health Perspect 85:209–218.
  • Mortensen JD, Stout L, Bagley B, Burkart JA, Schaap RN. 1989. Age related morphometric analysis of human lung casts. In: Crapo J, Smolko E, Miller F, Graham J, Hayes A, eds. Extrapolation of Dosimetric Relationships for Inhaled Particles and Gases. San Diego: Academic Press, 59–68.
  • NRC (National Research Council). 1993. Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
  • Nong A, McCarver DG, Hines RN, Krishnan K. 2006. Modeling interchild differences in pharmacokinetics on the basis of subject-specific data on physiology and hepatic CYP2E1 levels: A case study with toluene. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 214:78–87.
  • Pelekis M, Nicolich MJ, Gauthier JS. 2003. Probabilistic framework for the estimation of the adult and child toxicokinetic intraspecies uncertainty factors. Risk Anal 23:1239–1255.
  • Piedimonte G. 2003. Contribution of neuroimmune mechanisms to airway inflammation and remodeling during and after respiratory syncytial virus infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J 22(Suppl 2):S66–S74.
  • Prescott SL. 2003. Early origins of allergic disease: A review of processes and influences during early immune development. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 3:125–132.
  • Phalen RF, Oldham MJ, Beaucage CB, Crocker TT, Mortensen JD. 1985. Postnatal enlargement of human tracheobronchial airways and implications for particle deposition. Anat Rec 212:368–380.
  • Protonotariou E, Malamitsi-Puchner A, Rizos D, Sarandakou A, Makrakis E, Salamolekis E. 2003. Alterations in Thl/Th2 cytokine concentrations in early neonatal life. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 14:407–410.
  • Pullen L, Naujokas M. 2009. Relative dosages of inhaled pharmaceuticals as prescribed to children and adults. Unpublished report to USEPA under contract EP06H000694.
  • Raabe OG, Al-Bayati MA, Teague SV, Rasolt A. 1988. Regional deposition of inhaled monodisperse, coarse, and fine aerosol particles in small laboratory animals. Ann Occup Hyg 32(Suppl 1):53–63.
  • Renwick AG, Dorne JL, Walton K. 2000. An analysis of the need for an additional uncertainty factor for infants and children. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 31:286–296.
  • Rice DC, Gilbert SG 1982. Early chronic low-level methylmercury poisoning in monkeys impairs spatial vision. Science 216:759–761.
  • Sarangapani R, Gentry, PR, Covington, TR, Teeguarden, JG, Clewell, HJ. 2003. Evaluation of the potential impact of age- and gender-specific lung morphology and ventilation rate on the dosimetry of vapors. Inhal Toxicol 15:987–1016.
  • Schelegle, ES, Miller, LA, Gershwin, LJ, Fanucchia MV, Van Winklea LS, Gerrietsa JE, Walbya WF, Mitchellb V, Tarkingtonc BK, Wongc VJ, Bakerc GL, Pantlec LM, Joadd JP, Pinkertona KE, Wua R, Evansa MJ, Hydea DM, Ploppera CG. 2003. Repeated episodes of ozone inhalation amplifies the effects of allergen sensitization and inhalation on airway immune and structural development in Rhesus monkeys. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 191:74–85.
  • Schiller-Scotland CF, Hlawa R, Gebhart J. 1994. Experimental data for total deposition in the respiratory tract of children. Toxicol Lett 72:137–144.
  • Schwartz J. 2004. Air pollution and children’s health. Pediatrics 113: 1037–1043.
  • Selevan SG, Kimmel CA, Mendola P. 2000. Identifying critical windows of exposure for children’s health. Environ Health Perspect 108(Suppl 3):451–455.
  • Selgrade MK, Plopper CG, Gilmour MI, Conolly RB, Foos BS. 2008. Assessing the health effects and risks associated with children’s inhalation exposures—Asthma and allergy. J Toxicol Environ Health A 71:196–207.
  • Slotkin TA, Cousins MM, Tate CA, Seidler FJ. 2001. Persistent cholinergic presynatic deficits after neonatal chlorpyrifos exposure. Brain Res 902:229–243.
  • Smiley-Jewell SM, Plopper CG. 2003. Proliferation during early phases of bronchiolar repair in neonatal rabbits following lung injury by 4-ipomeanol. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 192:69–77.
  • Snipes MB, James AC, Jarabek AM. 1997. The 1994 ICRP66 human respiratory tract model as a tool for predicting lung burdens from exposures to environmental aerosols. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 12:547–554.
  • Thurlbeck WM. 1982. Postnatal human lung growth. Thorax 37:564–571.
  • Tsukahara H, Jiang MZ, Ohta N, Sato S, Tamura S, Hiraoka M, Maeda M, Mayumi M. 2004. Oxidative stress in neonates: Evaluation using specific biomarkers. Life Sci 75:933–938.
  • Ulbrich B, Palmer AK. 1996. Neurobehavioral aspects of developmental toxicity testing. Environ Health Perspect 104(Suppl 2):407–412.
  • USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency). 1989. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund, Volume I, Part A, Human Health Evaluation. EPA/540/1-89/002. Washington, DC: EPA/
  • USEPA. 1990. IRIS file for Dimethylformamide. Available at: http://www.epa.gov/ncea/iris/subst/0012.htm. Accessed May 31, 2009.
  • USEPA. 1994. Methods for derivation of inhalation reference concentrations and application of inhalation dosimetry. EPA/600/8–90/066F. Washington, DC: EPA/
  • USEPA. 1996. Dosimetry of inhaled particles in the respiratory tract. In: Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter. Volume II of III, Chapter 10. EPA/600/P-95/001bF. Washington, DC: Office of Research and Development.
  • USEPA. 1998a. IRIS file for Chromium. Available at: http://www.epa.gov/ncea/iris/subst/0144.htm. Accessed May 31, 2009.
  • USEPA. 1998b. IRIS file for Beryllium and Compounds. Available at http://www.epa.gov/ncea/iris/subst/0012.htm. Accessed May 31, 2009.
  • USEPA. 2000a. Summary report of the technical workshop on issues associated with considering developmental changes in behavior and anatomy when assessing exposure to children. EPA/630/R-00/005. Washington, DC: Risk Assessment Forum.
  • USEPA. 2000b. IRIS file for Vinyl Chloride. Available at: http://www.epa.gov/ncea/iris/subst/1001.htm. Accessed May 31, 2009.
  • USEPA. 2002. A review of the reference dose and reference concentration processes. EPA/630/P-02/002F. Washington, DC: Risk Assessment Forum.
  • USEPA. 2003. IRIS file for Benzene. Available at: http://www.epa.gov/ncea/iris/subst/0276.htm. Accessed May 31, 2009.
  • USEPA. 2005a. Supplemental guidance for assessing susceptibility from early-life exposure to carcinogens. EPA/630/R-03/. Washington, DC: EPA/
  • USEPA. 2005b. Guidelines for carcinogen risk assessment. EPA/630/P-03/001F. Washington, DC: EPA/
  • USEPA. 2006a. Guidance on selecting age groups for monitoring and assessing childhood exposures to environmental contaminants. EPA/630/P-03/003F. Washington, DC: EPA/
  • USEPA. 2006b. Air quality criteria for ozone and related photochemical oxidants. EPA/600/R-05/004aF. Washington, DC: EPA/
  • USEPA. 2008. Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook. EPA/600/R-06/096F. Washington, DC: EPA/
  • USEPA. 2009. Risk Assessment Guidance For Superfund, Volume I. Human Health Evaluation Manual. Part F. Supplemental Guidance for Inhalation Risk Assessment. EPA. 540-R-070-002. Washington, DC: EPA/
  • Van Loveren H, Piersma A. 2004. Immunotoxicological consequences of perinatal chemical exposures. Toxicol Lett 149:141–145.
  • Vidair CA. 2004. Age dependence of organophosphate and carbamate neurotoxicity in the postnatal rat: Extrapolation to the human. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 196:287–302.
  • Vieira I, Sonnier M, Cresteil T. 1996. Developmental expression of CYP2E1 in the human liver. Hypermethylation control of gene expression during the neonatal period. Eur J Biochem 238:476–483.
  • Wolff RK. 1992. Mucociliary function. In: Parent RA, ed. Comparative Biology of the Normal Lung. Ann Arbor: CRC Press, 659–680.
  • Woodruff TJ, Grillo J, Schoendorf KC. 1997. The relationship between selected causes of postneonatal infant mortality and particulate air pollution in the United States. Environ Health Perspect 105:608–612.
  • Woodruff TK, Walker. 2008. Fetal and early postnatal reproductive health effects and environment exposures in the female. Fertil Steril 89:e47–e51.
  • Yu CP, Xu GB. 1987. Predicted deposition of diesel particles in young humans. J Aerosol Sci 18:419–429.
  • Zeltner TB, Caduff JH, Gehr P, Pfenninger J, Burri PH. 1987. The postnatal development and growth of the human lung. I. Morphom Respir Physiol 67:247–267.
  • Zeltner TB, Caduff, J. H, Yu M, Zheng X, Peake J, Joad JP, Pinkerton KE. 2008. Perinatal environmental tobacco smoke exposure alters the immune response and airway innervation in infant primates. J Allergy Clin Immunol 122:640–647.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.