A mechanistic review of silica-induced inhalation toxicity

References

• Absher MP, Trombley L, Hemenway DR, et al. (1989). Biphasic cellular and tissue response of rat lungs after eight-day aerosol exposure to the silicon dioxide cristobalite. Am J Pathol 134:1243–51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Absher MP, Hemenway DR, Leslie KO, et al. (1992). Intrathoracic distribution and transport of aerosolized silica in the rat. Exp Lung Res 18:743–57
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adamson LYR, Bowden DH. (1982). Effects of irradiation on macrophagic response and transport of particles across the alveolar epithelium. Am J Pathol 106:40–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agostini C, Chilosi M, Zambello R, et al. (1993). Pulmonary immune cells in health and disease: lymphocytes. Eur Respir J 6:1378–401
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akira S. (2011). Innate immunity and adjuvants. Philos Trans R Soc B 366:2748–55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen TC, Kurdowska A. (2014). Interleukin 8 and acute lung injury. Arch Pathol Lab Med 138:266–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arredouani M, Yang Z, Ning Y, et al. (2004). The scavenger receptor MARCO is required for lung defense against pneumococcal pneumonia and inhaled particles. J Exp Med 200:267–72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arredouani MS, Palecanda A, Koziel H, et al. (2005). MARCO is the major binding receptor for unopsonized particles and bacteria on human alveolar macrophages. J Immunol 175:6058–64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arredouani MS, Yang Z, Imrich A, et al. (2006). The macrophage scavenger receptor SR-AI/II and lung defense against pneumococci and particles. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 35:474–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arts JH, Muijser H, Duistermaat E, et al. (2007). Five-day inhalation toxicity study of three types of synthetic amorphous silicas in Wistar rats and post-exposure evaluations for up to 3 months. Food Chem Toxicol 45:1856–67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babior BM. (2004). NADPH oxidase. Curr Opin Immunol 16:42–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balduzzi M, Diociaiuti M, De Berardis B, et al. (2004). In vitro effects on macrophages induced by noncytotoxic doses of silica particles possibly relevant to ambient exposure. Environ Res 96:62–71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banchereau J, Pascual V. (2006). Type I interferon in systemic lupus erythematosus and other autoimmune diseases. Immunity 25:383–92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barbarin V, Nihoul A, Misson P, et al. (2005). The role of pro- and anti-inflammatory responses in silica-induced lung fibrosis. Respir Res 6:112. doi: 10.1186/1465-9921-6-112
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnig C, Reboux G, Roussel S, et al. (2013). Indoor dust and air concentrations of endotoxin in urban and rural environments. Lett Appl Microbiol 56:161–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baroni T, Bodo M, D'Alessandro A, et al. (2001). Silica and its antagonistic effects on transforming growth factor-β in lung fibroblast extracellular matrix production. J Investig Med 49:146–56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes PJ. (2004). Mediators of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Pharmacol Rev 56:515–48
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes PJ. (2008). The cytokine network in asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Clin Invest 118:3546–56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beamer CA, Holian A. (2005). Scavenger receptor class A type I/II (CD204) null mice fail to develop fibrosis following silica exposure. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 289:L186–95
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beamer CA, Holian A. (2008). Silica suppresses Toll-like receptor ligand-induced dendritic cell activation. FASEB J 22:2053–63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beamer CA, Migliaccio CT, Jessop F, et al. (2010). Innate immune processes are sufficient for driving silicosis in mice. J Leukoc Biol 88:547–57
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker S, Soukup JM, Gallagher JE. (2002). Differential particulate air pollution induced oxidant stress in human granulocytes, monocytes and alveolar macrophages. Toxicol In Vitro 16:209–18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bendall LJ, Bradstock KF. (2014). G-CSF: from granulopoietic stimulant to bone marrow stem cell mobilizing agent. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 25:355–67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bice DE, Hahn FF, Benson J, et al. (1987). Comparative lung immunotoxicity of inhaled quartz and coal combustion fly ash. Environ Res 43:374–89
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bodo M, Baroni T, Bellocchio S, et al. (2001). Bronchial epithelial cell matrix production in response to silica and basic fibroblast growth factor. Mol Med 7:83–92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bogdan C, Vodovotz Y, Nathan C. (1991). Macrophage deactivation by interleukin 10. J Exp Med 174:1549–55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bogdan C, Paik J, Vodovotz Y, Nathan C. (1992). Contrasting mechanisms for suppression of macrophage cytokine release by transforming growth factor-β and interleukin-10. J Biol Chem 267:23301–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Border WA, Noble NA. (1994). Transforming growth factor β in tissue fibrosis. N Engl J Med 331:1286–92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borregaard N, Sørensen OE, Theilgaard-Mönch K. (2007). Neutrophil granules: a library of innate immunity proteins. Trends Immunol 28:340–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouillard L, Michel O, Dramaix M, Devleeschouwer M. (2005). Bacterial contamination of indoor air, surfaces, and settled dust, and related dust endotoxin concentrations in healthy office buildings. Ann Agric Environ Med 12:187–92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowden DH, Hedgecock C, Adamson IY. (1989). Silica-induced pulmonary fibrosis involves the reaction of particles with interstitial rather than alveolar macrophages. J Pathol 158:73–80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brass DM, Savov JD, Gavett SH, et al. (2003). Subchronic endotoxin inhalation causes persistent airway disease. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 285:L755–61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brass DM, Spencer JC, Li Z, et al. (2012). Innate immune activation by inhaled lipopolysaccharide, independent of oxidative stress, exacerbates silica-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice. PLoS One 7:e40789. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0040789
   Google Scholar
• Brody AR, Roe MW, Evans JN, Davis GS. (1982). Deposition and translocation of inhaled silica in rats. Quantification of particle distribution, macrophage participation, and function. Lab Invest 47:533--42
   Google Scholar
• Burns CA, Zarkower A, Ferguson FG. (1980). Murine immunological and histological changes in response to chronic silica exposure. Environ Res 21:298–307
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callis AH, Sohnle PG, Mandel GS, et al. (1985). Kinetics of inflammatory and fibrotic pulmonary changes in a murine model of silicosis. J Lab Clin Med 105:547–53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cassel SL, Eisenbarth SC, Iyer SS, et al. (2008). The Nalp3 inflammasome is essential for the development of silicosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105:9035–40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castranova V, Vallyathan V. (2000). Silicosis and coal workers' pneumoconiosis. Environ Health Perspect 108:675–84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castranova V, Porter D, Millecchia L, et al. (2002). Effect of inhaled crystalline silica in a rat model: time course of pulmonary reactions. Mol Cell Biochem 234/235:177–84
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen Y, Chen J, Dong J, Liu W. (2005). Antifibrotic effect of interferon gamma in silicosis model of rat. Toxicol Lett 155:353–60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chong S, Lee KS, Chung MJ, et al. (2006). Pneumoconiosis: comparison of imaging and pathologic findings. Radiographics 26:59–77
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Claudio E, Segade F, Wróbel K, et al. (1995). Activation of murine macrophages by silica particles in vitro is a process independent of silica-induced cell death. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 13:547–54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Co DO, Hogan LH, Il-Kim S, Sandor M. (2004). T cell contributions to the different phases of granuloma formation. Immunol Lett 92:135–42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper GS, Miller FW, Germolec DR. (2002). Occupational exposures and autoimmune diseases. Int Immunopharmacol 2:303–13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis GS, Hemenway DR, Evans JN, et al. (1981). Alveolar macrophage stimulation and population changes in silica-exposed rats. Chest 80:8–10
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Davis GS, Leslie KO, Hemenway DR. (1998). Silicosis in mice: effects of dose, time, and genetic strain. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol 17:81–97
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Davis GS, Holmes CE, Pfeiffer LM, Hemenway DR. (2001). Lymphocytes, lymphokines, and silicosis. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol 20:53–65
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Davis GS, Pfeiffer LM, Hemenway DR, Rincon M. (2006). Interleukin-12 is not essential for silicosis in mice. Part Fibre Toxicol 3:2. doi: 10.1186/1743-8977-3-2
   Google Scholar
• de Waal Malefyt R, Abrams J, Bennett B, et al. (1991). Interleukin-10 inhibits cytokine synthesis by human monocytes: an autoregulatory role of IL-10 produced by monocytes. J Exp Med 174:1209–20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Waal Malefyt R, Figdor CG, Huijbens R, et al. (1993). Effects of IL-13 on phenotype, cytokine production, and cytotoxic function of human monocytes. Comparisons with IL-4 and modulation by IFN-γ or IL-10. J Immunol 151:6370–81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desaki M, Sugawara I, Iwakura Y, et al. (2002). Role of interferon-γ in the development of murine bronchus-associated lymphoid tissues induced by silica in vivo. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 185:1–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dinarello CA. (1996). Biologic basis for interleukin-1 in disease. Blood 87:2095–147
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ding M, Chen F, Shi X, et al. (2002). Diseases caused by silica: mechanisms of injury and disease development. Int Immunopharmacol 2:173–82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donaldson K, Bolton RE, Jones AD, et al. (1988). Kinetics of the bronchoalveolar leukocyte response in rats during exposure to equal airborne mass concentration of quartz, chrysotile asbestos or titanium dioxide. Thorax 43:159–62
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donaldson K, Brown GM, Brown DM, et al. (1990). Contrasting bronchoalveolar leukocyte responses in rats inhaling coal mine dust, quartz, or titanium dioxide: effects of coal rank, airborne mass concentration, and cessation of exposure. Environ Res 52:62–76
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donaldson K, Li XY, Dogra S, et al. (1992). Asbestos-stimulated tumour necrosis factor release from alveolar macrophages depends on fibre length and opsonization. J Pathol 168:243–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dostert C, Pétrilli V, Van Bruggen R, et al. (2008). Innate immune activation through Nalp3 inflammasome sensing of asbestos and silica. Science 320:674–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Driscoll KE, Lindenschmidt RC, Maurer JK, et al. (1990a). Pulmonary response to silica or titanium dioxide: inflammatory cells, alveolar macrophage-derived cytokines, and histopathology. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2:381–90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Driscoll KE, Higgins JM, Leytart MJ, Crosby LL. (1990b). Differential effects of mineral dusts on the in vitro activation of alveolar macrophage eicosanoid and cytokine release. Toxicol In Vitro 4:284–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Driscoll KE, Lindenschmidt RC, Maurer JK, et al. (1991). Pulmonary response to inhaled silica or titanium dioxide. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 111:201–10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Driscoll KE, Howard BW, Carter JM, et al. (1996). α-Quartz-induced chemokine expression by rat lung epithelial cells: effects of in vivo and in vitro particle exposure. Am J Pathol 149:1627–37
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Driscoll KE, Carter JM, Hassenbein DG, Howard B. (1997). Cytokines and particle-induced inflammatory cell recruitment. Environ Health Perspect 105:1159–64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Driscoll KE, Carter JM, Howard BW, et al. (1998). Interleukin-10 regulates quartz-induced pulmonary inflammation in rats. Am J Physiol 275:L887–94
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Driscoll KE. (2000). TNFα and MIP-2: role in particle-induced inflammation and regulation by oxidative stress. Toxicol Lett 112–113:177–83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubois CM, Bissonnette E, Rola-Pleszczynski M. (1989). Asbestos fibers and silica particles stimulate rat alveolar macrophages to release tumor necrosis factor. Autoregulatory role of leukotriene B4. Am Rev Respir Dis 139:1257–64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duffin R, Tran L, Brown D, et al. (2007). Proinflammogenic effects of low-toxicity and metal nanoparticles in vivo and in vitro: highlighting the role of particle surface area and surface reactivity. Inhal Toxicol 19:849–56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fonseca JE, Santos MJ, Canhão H, Choy E. (2009). Interleukin-6 as a key player in systemic inflammation and joint destruction. Autoimmun Rev 8:538–42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forman HJ, Torres M. (2001). Redox signaling in macrophages. Mol Aspects Med 22:189–216
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Friedetzky A, Garn H, Kirchner A, Gemsa D. (1998). Histopathological changes in enlarged thoracic lymph nodes during the development of silicosis in rats. Immunobiology 199:119–32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fubini B, Hubbard A. (2003). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) generation by silica in inflammation and fibrosis. Free Radic Biol Med 34:1507–16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garn H, Friedetzky A, Kirchner A, et al. (2000). Experimental silicosis: a shift to a preferential IFN-γ-based Th1 response in thoracic lymph nodes. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 278:L1221--30
   Google Scholar
• Gasse P, Riteau N, Vacher R, et al. (2011). IL-1 and IL-23 mediate early IL-17A production in pulmonary inflammation leading to late fibrosis. PLoS One 6:e23185. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0023185
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gehring U, Bischof W, Fahlbusch B, et al. (2002). House dust endotoxin and allergic sensitization in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 166:939–44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerard C, Rollins BJ. (2001). Chemokines and disease. Nat Immunol 2:108–15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gereda JE, Klinnert MD, Price MR, et al. (2001). Metropolitan home living conditions associated with indoor endotoxin levels. J Allergy Clin Immunol 107:790–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghiazza M, Polimeni M, Fenoglio I, et al. (2010). Does vitreous silica contradict the toxicity of the crystalline silica paradigm? Chem Res Toxicol 23:620–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giordano G, van den Brûle S, Lo Re S, et al. (2010). Type I interferon signaling contributes to chronic inflammation in a murine model of silicosis. Toxicol Sci 116:682–92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon S. (2003). Alternative activation of macrophages. Nat Rev Immunol 3:23–35
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gosset P, Lassalle P, Vanhee D, et al. (1991). Production of tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 by human alveolar macrophages exposed in vitro to coal mine dust. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 5:431–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gozal E, Ortiz LA, Zou X, et al. (2002). Silica-induced apoptosis in murine macrophage: involvement of tumor necrosis factor-α and nuclear factor-κB activation. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 27:91–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gross O, Thomas CJ, Guarda G, Tschopp J. (2011). The inflammasome: an integrated view. Immunol Rev 243:136–51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guarda G, Dostert C, Staehli F, et al. (2009). T cells dampen innate immune responses through inhibition of NLRP1 and NLRP3 inflammasomes. Nature 460:269–73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gutcher I, Becher B. (2007). APC-derived cytokines and T cell polarization in autoimmune inflammation. J Clin Invest 117:1119–27
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hampton RY, Golenbock DT, Penman M, et al. (1991). Recognition and plasma clearance of endotoxin by scavenger receptors. Nature 352:342–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hasday JD, Bascom R, Costa JJ, et al. (1999). Bacterial endotoxin is an active component of cigarette smoke. Chest 115:829–35
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haworth R, Platt N, Keshav S, et al. (1997). The macrophage scavenger receptor type A is expressed by activated macrophages and protects the host against lethal endotoxic shock. J Exp Med 186:1431–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heine H, Rietschel ET, Ulmer AJ. (2001). The biology of endotoxin. Mol Biotechnol 19:279–96
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinrich PC, Castell JV, Andus T. (1990). Interleukin-6 and the acute phase response. Biochem J 265:621–36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hemenway DR, Absher M, Landesman M, et al. (1986). Differential lung response following silicon dioxide polymorph aerosol exposure. In: Goldsmith DF, Winn DM, Shy SM. (eds.) Silica, silicosis, and cancer: controversy in occupational medicine. New York: Praeger Publishers, 105–16
   Google Scholar
• Hemenway DR, Absher MP, Trombley L, Vacek PM. (1990). Comparative clearance of quartz and cristobalite from the lung. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 51:363–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henderson RF, Driscoll KE, Harkema JR, et al. (1995). A comparison of the inflammatory response of the lung to inhaled versus instilled particles in F344 rats. Fundam Appl Toxicol 24:183–97
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hirano T, Akira S, Taga T, Kishimoto T. (1990). Biological and clinical aspects of interleukin 6. Immunol Today 11:443–9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Holst G, Høst A, Doekes G, et al. (2015). Determinants of house dust, endotoxin, and β-(1→3)-d-glucan in homes of Danish children. Indoor Air 25:245–59
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hornung V, Bauernfeind F, Halle A, et al. (2008). Silica crystals and aluminum salts activate the NALP3 inflammasome through phagosomal destabilization. Nat Immunol 9:847–56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu S, Zhao H, Al-Humadi NH, et al. (2006). Silica-induced apoptosis in alveolar macrophages: evidence of in vivo thiol depletion and the activation of mitochondrial pathway. J Toxicol Environ Health A 69:1261–84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu S, Zhao H, Yin XJ, Ma JK. (2007). Role of mitochondria in silica-induced apoptosis of alveolar macrophages: inhibition of apoptosis by rhodamine 6G and N-acetyl-l-cysteine. J Toxicol Environ Health A 70:1403–15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang SH, Hubbs AF, Stanley CF, et al. (2001). Immunoglobulin responses to experimental silicosis. Toxicol Sci 59:108–17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huaux F, Louahed J, Hudspith B, et al. (1998). Role of interleukin-10 in the lung response to silica in mice. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 18:51–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hubbard AK. (1989). Role for T lymphocytes in silica-induced pulmonary inflammation. Lab Invest 61:46–52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huh JR, Littman DR. (2012). Small molecule inhibitors of RORγt: targeting Th17 cells and other applications. Eur J Immunol 42:2232–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iyer R, Hamilton RF, Li L, Holian A. (1996). Silica-induced apoptosis mediated via scavenger receptor in human alveolar macrophages. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 141:84–92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs JH, Krop EJ, de Wind S, et al. (2013). Endotoxin levels in homes and classrooms of Dutch school children and respiratory health. Eur Respir J 42:314–22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jagielo PJ, Thorne PS, Watt JL, et al. (1996). Grain dust and endotoxin inhalation challenges produce similar inflammatory responses in normal subjects. Chest 110:263–70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnston CJ, Driscoll KE, Finkelstein JN, et al. (2000). Pulmonary chemokine and mutagenic responses in rats after subchronic inhalation of amorphous and crystalline silica. Toxicol Sci 56:405–13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaliste E, Linnainmaa M, Meklin T, Nevalainen A. (2002). Airborne contaminants in conventional laboratory rabbit rooms. Lab Anim 36:43–50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaliste E, Linnainmaa M, Meklin T, et al. (2004). The bedding of laboratory animals as a source of airborne contaminants. Lab Anim 38:25–37
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanchongkittiphon W, Mendell MJ, Gaffin JM, et al. (2015). Indoor environmental exposures and exacerbation of asthma: an update to the 2000 review by the Institute of Medicine. Environ Health Perspect 123:6–20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang JL, Lee K, Castranova V. (2000). Nitric oxide up-regulates DNA-binding activity of nuclear factor-κB in macrophages stimulated with silica and inflammatory stimulants. Mol Cell Biochem 215:1–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katsnelson BA, Konyscheva LK, Sharapova NYe, Privalova LI. (1994). Prediction of the comparative intensity of pneumoconiotic changes caused by chronic inhalation exposure to dusts of different cytotoxicity by means of a mathematical model. Occup Environ Med 51:173--80
   Google Scholar
• Kawai T, Akira S. (2009). The roles of TLRs, RLRs and NLRs in pathogen recognition. Int Immunol 21:317–37
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kawasaki H, Moriyama M, Tanaka A. (1987). Augmentation of endotoxin fever by recombinant human beta interferon in rabbits. Infect Immun 55:1121–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kawasaki H, Moriyama M, Nariuchi H. (1992). Mechanism of augmentation of endotoxin fever by beta interferon in rabbits: possible participation of tumor necrosis factor (cachectin). Infect Immun 60:933–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim DS, Collard HR, King TE Jr. (2006). Classification and natural history of the idiopathic interstitial pneumonias. Proc Am Thorac Soc 3:285–92
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kobzik L. (1995). Lung macrophage uptake of unopsonized environmental particulates. Role of scavenger-type receptors. J Immunol 155:367–76
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kolb M, Margetts PJ, Anthony DC, et al. (2001). Transient expression of IL-1β induces acute lung injury and chronic repair leading to pulmonary fibrosis. J Clin Invest 107:1529–36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar NM, Rabadi NH, Sigurdson LS, et al. (1996). Induction of interleukin-1 and interleukin-8 mRNAs and proteins by TGFβ1 in rat lung alveolar epithelial cells. J Cell Physiol 169:186–99
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lalor SJ, Dungan LS, Sutton CE, et al. (2011). Caspase-1-processed cytokines IL-1β and IL-18 promote IL-17 production by γδ and CD4 T cells that mediate autoimmunity. J Immunol 186:5738–48
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langermans JA, Nibbering PH, Van Vuren-Van Der Hulst ME, Van Furth R. (2001). Transforming growth factor-β suppresses interferon-γ-induced toxoplasmastatic activity in murine macrophages by inhibition of tumour necrosis factor-α production. Parasite Immunol 23:169–75
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larsson L, Szponar B, Pehrson C. (2004). Tobacco smoking increases dramatically air concentrations of endotoxin. Indoor Air 14:421–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lauweryns JM, Baert JH. (1977). Alveolar clearance and the role of the pulmonary lymphatics. Am Rev Respir Dis 115:625–83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Y, Zhou Y, Iribarren P, Wang J. (2004). Chemokines and chemokine receptors: their manifold roles in homeostasis and disease. Cell Mol Immunol 1:95–104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee KP, Trochimowicz HJ, Reinhardt CF. (1985). Pulmonary response of rats exposed to titanium dioxide (TiO2) by inhalation for two years. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 79:179–92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee KP, Henry NW, III, Trochimowicz HJ, Reinhardt CF. (1986). Pulmonary response to impaired lung clearance in rats following excessive TiO2 dust deposition. Environ Res 41:144–67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lo Re S, Dumoutier L, Couillin I, et al. (2010). IL-17A-producing γδ T and Th17 lymphocytes mediate lung inflammation but not fibrosis in experimental silicosis. J Immunol 184:6367–77
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Locksley RM, Killeen N, Lenardo MJ. (2001). The TNF and TNF receptor superfamilies: integrating mammalian biology. Cell 104:487–501
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mantovani A, Sica A, Sozzani S, et al. (2004). The chemokine system in diverse forms of macrophage activation and polarization. Trends Immunol 25:677–86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mariani TJ, Roby JD, Mecham RP, et al. (1996). Localization of type I procollagen gene expression in silica-induced granulomatous lung disease and implication of transforming growth factor-β as a mediator of fibrosis. Am J Pathol 148:151–64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin TR, Chi EY, Covert DS, et al. (1983). Comparative effects of inhaled volcanic ash and quartz in rats. Am Rev Respir Dis 128:144--52
   Google Scholar
• Merget R, Bauer T, Küpper HU, et al. (2002). Health hazards due to the inhalation of amorphous silica. Arch Toxicol 75:625–34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meltzer EB, Noble PW. (2008). Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Orphanet J Rare Dis 3:8. doi: 10.1186/1750-1172-3-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer O. (2009). Interferons and autoimmune disorders. Joint Bone Spine 76:464–73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mi S, Li Z, Yang HZ, et al. (2011). Blocking IL-17A promotes the resolution of pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis via TGF-β1-dependent and -independent mechanisms. J Immunol 187:3003–14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michel O, Nagy AM, Schroeven M, et al. (1997). Dose-response relationship to inhaled endotoxin in normal subjects. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 156:1157–64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller FW, Alfredsson L, Costenbader KH, et al. (2012). Epidemiology of environmental exposures and human autoimmune diseases: findings from a National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Expert Panel Workshop. J Autoimmun 39:259–71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohr C, Gemsa D, Graebner C, et al. (1991). Systemic macrophage stimulation in rats with silicosis: enhanced release of tumor necrosis factor-α from alveolar and peritoneal macrophages. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 5:395–402
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohr C, Davis GS, Graebner C, et al. (1992). Enhanced release of prostaglandin E2 from macrophages of rats with silicosis. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 6:390–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monteiller C, Tran L, MacNee W, et al. (2007). The pro-inflammatory effects of low-toxicity low-solubility particles, nanoparticles and fine particles, on epithelial cells in vitro: the role of surface area. Occup Environ Med 64:609–15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mornex JF, Leroux C, Greenland T, Ecochard D. (1994). From granuloma to fibrosis in interstitial lung diseases: molecular and cellular interactions. Eur Respir J 7:779–85
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrow PE. (1988). Possible mechanisms to explain dust overloading of the lungs. Fund Appl Toxicol 10:369–84
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mosser DM, Edwards JP. (2008). Exploring the full spectrum of macrophage activation. Nat Rev Immunol 8:958–69
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray PJ. (2005). The primary mechanism of the IL-10-regulated antiinflammatory response is to selectively inhibit transcription. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102:8686–91
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NIOSH. (2011). Current Intelligence Bulletin 63. Occupational exposure to titanium dioxide. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2011–160
   Google Scholar
• Oberdörster G, Ferin J, Lehnert BE. (1994). Correlation between particle size, in vivo particle persistence, and lung injury. Environ Health Perspect 102:173–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ooms TG, Artwohl JE, Conroy LM, et al. (2008). Concentration and emission of airborne contaminants in a laboratory animal facility housing rabbits. J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci 47:39–48
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Reilly KM, Phipps RP, Thatcher TH, et al. (2005). Crystalline and amorphous silica differentially regulate the cyclooxygenase-prostaglandin pathway in pulmonary fibroblasts: implications for pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 288:L1010–16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ouyang W, Kolls JK, Zheng Y. (2008). The biological functions of T helper 17 cell effector cytokines in inflammation. Immunity 28:454–67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Øvrevik J, Låg M, Schwarze P, Refsnes M. (2004). p38 and Src-ERK1/2 pathways regulate crystalline silica-induced chemokine release in pulmonary epithelial cells. Toxicol Sci 81:480–90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ownby DR, Peterson EL, Wegienka G, et al. (2013). Are cats and dogs the major source of endotoxin in homes? Indoor Air 23:219–26
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park JH, Spiegelman DL, Gold DR, et al. (2001). Predictors of airborne endotoxin in the home. Environ Health Perspect 109:859–64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peiser L, Gough PJ, Kodama T, Gordon S. (2000). Macrophage class A scavenger receptor-mediated phagocytosis of Escherichia coli: role of cell heterogeneity, microbial strain, and culture conditions in vitro. Infect Immun 68:1953–63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Porter DW, Ramsey D, Hubbs AF, et al. (2001). Time course of pulmonary response of rats to inhalation of crystalline silica: histological results and biochemical indices of damage, lipidosis, and fibrosis. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol 20:1–14
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Porter DW, Millecchia L, Robinson VA, et al. (2002a). Enhanced nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species production and damage after inhalation of silica. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 283:L485–93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Porter DW, Ye J, Ma J, et al. (2002b). Time course of pulmonary response of rats to inhalation of crystalline silica: NF-κB activation, inflammation, cytokine production, and damage. Inhal Toxicol 14:349–67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Porter DW, Hubbs AF, Mercer R, et al. (2004). Progression of lung inflammation and damage in rats after cessation of silica inhalation. Toxicol Sci 79:370–80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Porter DW, Millecchia LL, Willard P, et al. (2006). Nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species production causes progressive damage in rats after cessation of silica inhalation. Toxicol Sci 90:188–97
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pourova J, Kottova M, Voprsalova M, Pour M. (2010). Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in normal physiological processes. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 198:15–35
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Privalova LI, Katsnelson BA, Yelnichnykh LN. (1987). Some peculiarities of the pulmonary phagocytotic response: dust retention kinetics and silicosis development during long term exposure of rats to high quartz dust levels. Br J Ind Med 44:228–35
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rangel-Moreno J, Hartson L, Navarro C, et al. (2006). Inducible bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (iBALT) in patients with pulmonary complications of rheumatoid arthritis. J Clin Invest 116:3183–94
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao KM, Porter DW, Meighan T, Castranova V. (2004). The sources of inflammatory mediators in the lung after silica exposure. Environ Health Perspect 112:1679–86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Redente EF, Higgins DM, Dwyer-Nield LD, et al. (2010). Differential polarization of alveolar macrophages and bone marrow-derived monocytes following chemically and pathogen-induced chronic lung inflammation. J Leukoc Biol 88:159–68
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reed CE, Milton DK. (2001). Endotoxin-stimulated innate immunity: a contributing factor for asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 108:157–66
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reiser KM, Hesterberg TW, Haschek WM, Last JA. (1982). Experimental silicosis. I. Acute effects of intratracheally instilled quartz on collagen metabolism and morphologic characteristics of rat lungs. Am J Pathol 107:176–85
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richmond I, Pritchard GE, Ashcroft T, et al. (1993). Bronchus associated lymphoid tissue (BALT) in human lung: its distribution in smokers and non-smokers. Thorax 48:1130–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rimal B, Greenberg AK, Rom WN. (2005). Basic pathogenetic mechanisms in silicosis: current understanding. Curr Opin Pulm Med 11:169–73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarir H, Henricks PA, van Houwelingen AH, et al. (2008). Cells, mediators and Toll-like receptors in COPD. Eur J Pharmacol 585:346–53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sayes CM, Reed KL, Warheit DB. (2007). Assessing toxicity of fine and nanoparticles: comparing in vitro measurements to in vivo pulmonary toxicity profiles. Toxicol Sci 97:163–80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schins RP, McAlinden A, MacNee W, et al. (2000). Persistent depletion of I kappa B alpha and interleukin-8 expression in human pulmonary epithelial cells exposed to quartz particles. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 167:107–17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt JA, Oliver CN, Lepe-Zuniga JL, et al. (1984). Silica-stimulated monocytes release fibroblast proliferation factors identical to interleukin 1. A potential role for interleukin 1 in the pathogenesis of silicosis. J Clin Invest 73:1462–72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seagrave JC, Nikula KJ. (2000). Multiple modes of responses to air pollution particulate materials in A549 alveolar type II cells. Inhal Toxicol 12:247–60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sebastian A, Pehrson C, Larsson L. (2006). Elevated concentrations of endotoxin in indoor air due to cigarette smoking. J Environ Monit 8:519–22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sellamuthu R, Umbright C, Roberts JR, et al. (2011). Blood gene expression profiling detects silica exposure and toxicity. Toxicol Sci 122:253–64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi X, Castranova V, Halliwell B, Vallyathan V. (1998). Reactive oxygen species and silica-induced carcinogenesis. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev 1:181–97
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simpson JC, Niven RM, Pickering CA, et al. (1999). Comparative personal exposures to organic dusts and endotoxin. Ann Occup Hyg 43:107–15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh S, Shi T, Duffin R, et al. (2007). Endocytosis, oxidative stress and IL-8 expression in human lung epithelial cells upon treatment with fine and ultrafine TiO2: role of the specific surface area and of surface methylation of the particles. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 222:141–51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sjöstrand M, Rylander R. (1984). Enzymes in lung lavage fluid after inhalation exposure to silica dust. Environ Res 33:307–11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song L, Weng D, Liu F, et al. (2012). Tregs promote the differentiation of Th17 cells in silica-induced lung fibrosis in mice. PLoS One 7:e37286. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0037286
   Google Scholar
• Steerenberg PA, Zonnenberg JA, Dormans JA, et al. (1998). Diesel exhaust particles induced release of interleukin 6 and 8 by (primed) human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS 2B) in vitro. Exp Lung Res 24:85–100
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stringer B, Imrich A, Kobzik L. (1996). Lung epithelial cell (A549) interaction with unopsonized environmental particulates: quantitation of particle-specific binding and IL-8 production. Exp Lung Res 22:495–508
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sullivan DE, Ferris M, Pociask D, Brody AR. (2005). Tumor necrosis factor-α induces transforming growth factor-β1 expression in lung fibroblasts through the extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathway. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 32:342–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terada LS. (2006). Specificity in reactive oxidant signaling: think globally, act locally. J Cell Biol 174:615–23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thacker EL. (2006). Lung inflammatory responses. Vet Res 37:469–86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thakur SA, Hamilton R Jr, Pikkarainen T, Holian A. (2009a). Differential binding of inorganic particles to MARCO. Toxicol Sci 107:238–46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thakur SA, Beamer CA, Migliaccio CT, Holian A. (2009b). Critical role of MARCO in crystalline silica-induced pulmonary inflammation. Toxicol Sci 108:462–71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Theofilopoulos AN, Baccala R, Beutler B, Kono DH. (2005). Type I interferons (α/β) in immunity and autoimmunity. Annu Rev Immunol 23:307–36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thorn J. (2001). The inflammatory response in humans after inhalation of bacterial endotoxin: a review. Inflamm Res 50:254–61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vallyathan V, Shi X, Castranova V. (1998). Reactive oxygen species: their relation to pneumoconiosis and carcinogenesis. Environ Health Perspect 106:1151–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Velan GM, Kumar RK, Cohen DD. (1993). Pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis following subacute inhalational exposure to silica: determinants of progression. Pathology 25:282–90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vincent JH, Jones AD, Johnston AM, et al. (1987). Accumulation of inhaled mineral dust in the lung and associated lymph nodes: implications for exposure and dose in occupational lung disease. Ann Occup Hyg 31:375–93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vogel SN, English KE, O'Brien AD. (1982). Silica enhancement of murine endotoxin sensitivity. Infect Immun 38:681–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warheit DB, Carakostas MC, Hartsky MA, Hansen JF. (1991). Development of a short-term inhalation bioassay to assess pulmonary toxicity of inhaled particles: comparisons of pulmonary responses to carbonyl iron and silica. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 107:350–68
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warheit DB, Hartsky MA. (1997). Initiating the risk assessment process for inhaled particulate materials: development of short term inhalation bioassays. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 7:313–25
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Warheit DB, Hansen JF, Yuen IS, et al. (1997). Inhalation of high concentrations of low toxicity dusts in rats results in impaired pulmonary clearance mechanisms and persistent inflammation. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 145:10–22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warshamana GS, Corti M, Brody AR. (2001). TNF-α, PDGF, and TGF-β1 expression by primary mouse bronchiolar-alveolar epithelial and mesenchymal cells: TNF-α induces TGF-β1. Exp Mol Pathol 71:13–33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wesselius LJ, Nelson ME, Bailey K, O'Brien-Ladner AR. (1997). Rapid lung cytokine accumulation and neutrophil recruitment after lipopolysaccharide inhalation by cigarette smokers and nonsmokers. J Lab Clin Med 129:106–14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss L, Haeffner-Cavaillon N, Cavaillon JM, Kazatchkine MD. (1989). Human T cells and interleukin-4 inhibit the release of interleukin-1 induced by lipopolysaccharide in serum-free cultures of autologous monocytes. Eur J Immunol 19:1347–50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams GT, Williams WJ. (1983). Granulomatous inflammation – a review. J Clin Pathol 36:723–33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams AO, Flanders KC, Saffiotti U. (1993). Immunohistochemical localization of transforming growth factor-β1 in rats with experimental silicosis, alveolar type II hyperplasia, and lung cancer. Am J Pathol 142:1831–40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams AO, Saffiotti U. (1995). Transforming growth factor β1, ras and p53 in silica-induced fibrogenesis and carcinogenesis. Scand J Work Environ Health 21:30–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson MS, Madala SK, Ramalingam TR, et al. (2010). Bleomycin and IL-1β-mediated pulmonary fibrosis is IL-17A dependent. J Exp Med 207:535–52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolpe SD, Sherry B, Juers D, et al. (1989). Identification and characterization of macrophage inflammatory protein 2. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86:612–16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. (2000). Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 24, Crystalline silica, quartz. Geneva: World Health Organization
   Google Scholar
• Wottrich R, Diabaté S, Krug HF. (2004). Biological effects of ultrafine model particles in human macrophages and epithelial cells in mono- and co-culture. Int J Hyg Environ Health 207:353–61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu H, Dinsdale D, Nemery B, Hoet PH. (2003). Role of residual additives in the cytotoxicity and cytokine release caused by polyvinyl chloride particles in pulmonary cell cultures. Toxicol Sci 72:92–102
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeidler PC, Roberts JR, Castranova V, et al. (2003). Response of alveolar macrophages from inducible nitric oxide synthase knockout or wild-type mice to an in vitro lipopolysaccharide or silica exposure. J Toxicol Environ Health A 66:995–1013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang Y, Lee TC, Guillemin B, et al. (1993). Enhanced IL-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α release and messenger RNA expression in macrophages from idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis or after asbestos exposure. J Immunol 150:4188–96
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao RZ, Chen X, Yao Q, Chen C. (2005). TNF-α induces interleukin-8 and endothelin-1 expression in human endothelial cells with different redox pathways. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 327:985–92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar