https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4108-8032
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ABSTRACT
The Confucian temple (Kong miao孔庙) was the most important official educational institution and the centre of local education in ancient China. This study explores the history of the Confucian temple in Jiangyin (江阴) as a case to reveal the dynamics of educational reform in China, which had witnessed the collision of Chinese and Western educational philosophies and the former’s accommodation of the latter. The history of the Confucian temple and its educational space from the eleventh century to the present reveal an alternation between unity and separation; between an ancient Confucian sacred space and a modern social educational institution; and between elitist and egalitarian functions. In this story of architecture and landscape, the juxtaposition and integration of Chinese and Western beliefs becomes evident. The inheritance and transformation of educational space also demonstrates that educational and cultural resources have the potential for adaptation in the course of historical development.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes
1 Song Enrong, Jindai zhongguo jiaoyu gaige [Educational Reform in Modern China] (Beijing: Educational Science Press, 1994).
2 Western educational doctrine and its corresponding system are here intended to provide a general reference for educational thought with Western characteristics gradually introduced once China was opened up to Western modernity, differing from Chinese traditional educational doctrine and its attendant system: see Guo Qijia, A History of Chinese Education Thought (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 2006); Dinggang, Quanqiuhua shiye zhong de zhongguo chuantong yanjiu [Research on Chinese Educational Tradition from the Perspective of Globalisation] (Guilin: Guangxi Normal University Press, 2009), especially the first four chapters.
3 The main studies include Benjamin A. Elman and Alexander Woodside, eds, Education and Society in Late Imperial China, 1600–1900 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); Benjamin A. Elman, A Cultural History of Civil Examination in Late Imperial China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000); Benjamin A. Elman, Civil Examinations and Meritocracy in Late Imperial China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013); Barry C. Keenan, Imperial China’s Last Classical Academies: Social Change in the Lower Yangzi, 1864–1911 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); and Chow Kai-wing, The Rise of Confucian Ritualism in Ch’ing China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996).
4 Confucius is the Latinised name for the Chinese philosopher Kongfuze (K’ung Fu-tzu), or “Kong the master” (551–479 bc). As a noun, “Confucian” denotes discipleship of Confucius; as an adjective, it refers to all things related to Confucius or Confucianism. Confucianism refers to a system of philosophical and ethical teachings founded by Confucius and developed by Mencius: see Lee Dian Rainey, Confucius & Confucianism: The Essentials (Wiley-Blackwell, 2010); Richard Wilhelm, trans. George H. Danton and Annina Periam Danton, Confucius and Confucianism (Malden, MA: Routledge, 2005); and Zhang Yaxiang, trans. Ding Yi, Confucian Temples South of the Yangtze (Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press, 2010).
5 Yi Baisha, “Kongzi pingyi (Confucius Comments),” Youth Magazine, 1, no. 6 (1916): 2.
6 The Confucian temple was originally a family temple for the descendants of Confucius to make sacrifices to him. The first Confucian temple in China, Qufu Confucian temple in Shandong Province, was built in 478 bc, the second year after the death of Confucius. From 28ad to 75ad, the court of the Eastern Han Dynasty advocated offering sacrifices to Confucius in schools all over the country. The teaching function of the school was gradually combined with the worshiping function by offering sacrifices to Confucius, which began the tradition of “unity of school and temple” or “the unity of learning and worship”.
7 In ancient China, the purpose of offering sacrifices to Confucius was not for religious belief, but for people to carry out cultural edification and moral education with Confucius as an example, so as to educate and manage the people. See Chow kai-wing, The Rise of Confucian Ritualism in ch’ing China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996); Deng Lingyan, “Kongjian yu jiaohua: Wenmiao kongjian xianxiang jiqi jiaoyu yiyun de xingcheng [Space and Enlightenment: The Spatial Phenomenon of Confucian Temple and Its Educational Connotation],” Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition), no. 5 (2017): 132–9.
8 Peter Carroll, Between Heaven and Modernity: Reconstructing Suzhou: 1895–1937 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006), 117.
9 On the evolution of the local administrative system in China, see Zhou Zhenhe, Zhongguo Difang Xingzheng Zhidushi [History of Local Administrative System in China] (Shanghai: Shanghai People Press, 2014), 58–139; and Cai Fangbo, zhongguo xingzheng zhidushi [History of Chinese Administrative System] (Wuhan: Wuhan University Press, 2009), 111–45.
10 Jun Zhong, “Shengshi yichun: Quanguo kongmiao de fenbu he baohu guanli zhuangkuang [Remains of the Prosperous Age: Distribution, Protection and Management of Confucius Temples in China],” Chinese Cultural Heritage, no. 5 (2014): 10–19.
11 Jiangyin was the name of both the county and the city. China’s grass-roots administrative divisions were mainly based on counties. Each county had a central city and also managed some surrounding villages. The name of the city was also the name of the county. For example, Jiangyin county was centred on Jiangyin City.
12 Fan Zhongyan, “Jingyou chongjian zhi shengwenxuanwang miaoji [Jingyou’s Reconstruction of the Temple of the Most Holy Emperor of Wenxuan],” in Zhengde Jiangyin County Annals, Ch. 2, School, 1520.
13 See Yu-Wen Chou, “Huang zunxian dui wanqing yinjie riben jiaoyu zhidu ji jianli xishi jiaoyu de gongxian, jiaoyu yanjiu jikan [Huang Zunxian’s Contribution to the Introduction of Aspects of the Japanese Education System and the Establishment of Western-Style Education in Late Qing China],” Bulletin of Educational Research 60, no. 2 (2014): 77–114; Yu-Wen Chou, “Luo zhenyu riben jiaoyu kaocha yu wanqing xuezhi zhiding de guanxi, jiaoyu yanjiu jikan [Chen-Yu Lo’ Educational Visit to Japan and the Drafting of School Systems in Late Ch’ing],” Bulletin of Educational Research 61, no. 1 (2015): 1–33; Yu-Wen Chou, “Wurulun riben jiaoyu kaocha yu dui wanqing xuezhi jianli yingxiang chegndu de zai tantao,Jiaoyu kexue yanjiu qikan [Master Ju-Lun Wu’s Inspection of Japanese Education and Revaluation of Its Influence on the Drafting of School Systems in the Late Ch’ing Period],” Journal of Research in Education Sciences 60, no. 3 (2015): 127–51; and Yu-Wen Chou, “Wanqing wuxu weixin qian guanmin dui yingguo jiaoyu de yinjie chutan,jiaoyu kexue yanjiu jikan [The Introduction of British Education in Late Ch’ing China Before 1898],” Journal of Research in Education Sciences 62, no. 1 (2017): 1–31.
14 See Thomas H.C. Lee, Education in Traditional China: A History (Leiden: Brill, 2000); Zhong Shuangde, Jiaoyu zhiben: Lidai guanxue yu minfengjiaohua [The Foundation of Education: Official School and Folk Jiaohua in Previous Dynasties] (Beijing: Modern Publishing Press, 2015).
15 On the attitude of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom towards Confucianism and its destruction of Confucian Temples, see Jin Linxiang, Zhongguo jiaoyu zhidu tongshi [General History of Education System in China], vol. 6 (Jinan: Jinan Shandong Educational Press, 2000), 61–76.
16 On the history of the change of school system in modern China, see Chen Baoqian, Zhongguo jindai xuezhi bianqian [History of School System Changes in Modern China] (Taiyuan: Shanxi People’s Publishing Press, 2014).
17 Jiang Chunjiao and Mao Pengcheng, “The Fate of Traditional Schools in a Context of Educational Modernisation: The Case of Si-Shu in China,” History of Education Review 50, no. 1 (2020): 39–53.
18 Miao Quansun, Jiangyin jinshi luquan [A Complete Record of Recent Events in Jiangyin] (Taiwan: Chengwen Publishing Press, 1970), 91.
19 Shen Kangpeng, “Jiushice [Some suggestions on rescuing Today’s China],” The Globe Magazine 75, 1885.
20 After the introduction of Christianity into China, there were two voices among Christians, one was to reconcile the contradiction between Christianity and Confucianism, and the other was to replace Confucianism with Christianity. Shen Kangpeng, a Chinese Christian who has been educated in traditional Chinese culture, is the one who holds the reconciliation view.
21 Lingxing Star is one of the 28 stars in ancient China, and according to ancient Chinese legend, the Lingxing star represents the Star of Literature. It means that Confucius descended from heaven as an astrological host.
22 Wu Ranxian, “Jiangyin qiuxun [Jiangyin Ball News],” Education and Life, January 21, 1924.
23 During the period of the Republic of China, hanging the portrait of Premier Sun Yat sen in the school classroom or auditorium and saluting the portrait of the Premier at major festivals became part of school scenery. With the passage of time, what had changed was the object of worship, and what had not changed was the cultural mentality of the Chinese people to worship great men and authority. See Chen Yunxi, “Zongli yixiang yu Sun Zhongshan chongbai [“Portrait of Premier” and Sun Yat Sen Worship],” Jiangsu Social Sciences 6 (2006): 106–17.
24 See Kongzhe, Kongzimiao jianzhu zhidu yanjiu [Research on the Architectural System of Confucian Temple] (Qingdao: Qingdao Publishing Press, 2018).
25 Minglun Hall was the main hall for teaching Confucian doctrine, and was a meeting place for large gatherings, such as official speeches to teachers and students, celebrations for student achievements in the imperial examination, and rehearsals for memorial ceremonies.
26 Huang Jinxing discussed the sacrificial system of Confucian Temple from the perspective of comparative religion, and specially compared the Confucian sacrificial system with the Christian canonisation system. See Huang Jinxing, Shengxian yu shengtu [Sages and Men of Virtue] (Beijing: Peking University Press, 2005); and Herbert Fingarette, Confucius: The Secular as Sacred (New York: Harper & Row, 1972).
27 See Sun Deyu, Xulu, “Lun xianqin rujia bide sixiang de jiaoyu yihan [The Educational Implication of Confucian Metonymy in the Pre-Qin Period],” Higher Education Research 7 (2015): 92–6.
28 D.C. Lau, trans, The Analects (Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press: 1992), 34.
29 Qiao Yu, Chongxiu Miaoxue Jibei [Rebuilding the Memorial Tablet of Temple Studies], Minguo Jiangyinxian Xuzhi [the Continuation Records of Jiangyin County of the Republic of China], Ch. 22, Shikeji [inscriptional record], 1920.
30 Huang Ying, Yuanfeng Jiangyinxian Kaiheji [The Opening of the River in Jiangyin County], Zhengde Jiangyin Xianzhi [Zhengde Jiangyin County Annals], Ch. 2, School, Printed in 1520.
31 Shi Xiaoxiang, Junzi Tangji [The Story of the Scholar’s Academy], Chongzhen Jiangyin Xianzhi [Chongzhen Jiangyin County Annals], Yiwezhi (Yiwenzhi), Vol. 5, 1640.
32 Li Hong-yuan, “Kongmiao Panchi zhi wenhua yuyi Tanxi [The Cultural Implications of Pan-chi in Confucius Temple],” Academic Exploration, no. 2 (2010): 116–21.
33 Qiao Yu, Chongxiu miaoxue jibei [Rebuilding the Memorial Tablet of Temple Studies], Minguo Jiangyinxian xuzhi [the Continuation Records of Jiangyin County of the Republic of China], Ch. 22, Shikeji [inscriptional record], 1920.
34 Cai Peng and Luo shizan, Qianlong Jiangyin xianzhi [Annals of Jiangyin County of Qianlong], Vol. 8 (1736).
35 Kuixing was a star named Kui, which inspired learning and ruled over examinations.
36 Ji Zi (季子), Ji Zha (季札), is the third son of Wu Wang ShouMeng in the Spring and Autumn period. He was a man of high moral character, talent, and cultivation. He was indifferent to power and position, and was respected by later generations because he resigned from the throne. It is said that Confucius personally wrote “Tomb of Ji Zi in Yanling” on his tombstone. So he is considered to be the first saint in Jiangyin history. For his story, see Zhou Qun, Jiangsu lidai wenhua mingren zhuanjizha [Biography of Jiangsu Cultural Celebrities of past dynasties] (Nanjing: Jiangsu People’s Publishing Press, 2019).
37 Qinding Xiaoxuetang Zhangcheng [The Constitution of the Imperial Primary School], Chen Yuanhui, Zhongguo Jindai Jiaoyushi Ziliao Huibian [Compilation of the History of Modern Chinese Education], [The Evolution of Educational System] (Shanghai: Shanghai Educational Press, 2007), 279.
38 Chen Yunxi, “Guojia quanli yu jindai zhongguo chengshi kongjian chonggou [State Power and Urban Spatial Reconstruction in Modern China],” Journal of Wuhan University (Humanities) 69, no. 3 (2016): 10–15.
39 Jiang Susheng Shehui Jiaoyu zhi Gaikuang [The General Outline of Social Education in Jiangsu province], Shibao (Times Newspaper) (Shanghai, 1917), Jan 15.
40 Zhou Huimei, “Cong guanshe shezhi kan minzhong jiaoyuguan de jiaoyu yiyun [On the Educational Implication of Mass Education Museum from the Setting of Museum Buildings],” Journal of East China Normal University (Educational Science Edition) 30, no. 2 (2012): 76–83.
41 “Regulations: Measures for the Preservation of Confucian Temple Property,” Jinshan Education Monthly, no. 11 (1929): 82–3.
42 Yin Mengxia, A Collection of Education Communiques of the Republic of China (Beijing: National Library Press, 2009).
43 The Official letter of holding a memorial meeting in the Confucian temple, Jiangyin Archives, file no. 020211.
44 Records of the Symposium on the relief of Confucian temple refugees in the city, Jiangyin Archives, file no. 0202124.
45 See Zhang Guopeng and Li Yongsheng, “Jiumiao xinming: Minguo Beijing zhegnfu shiqi wenmiao de shidaichengzai-Yi shanghai wenmiao wei zhongxin [Old Temple and New Life: the era bearing of Confucian temple during the Beijing government of the Republic of China – centred on Shanghai Confucian Temple],” Research on Urban History, no. 2 (2017): 275–98, 332–3.
46 Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space (Cambridge: Basil Blackwell, 1991), 265.
47 Paul Rabinow, “Space, Knowledge and Power: Interview with Michel Foucault,” Skyline, March, 1982, 16–20.
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Shujuan Yu
Shujuan Yu is Associate Professor of History of Education in the Department of Education, School of Humanities, Jiangnan University. Her interests centre on educational thoughts, teacher development, and university history. A common thread that runs through her work is an historical perspective on the relationships among education, society, and individual development in the context of cultural dialogue between the East and West.
Yu Zhang
Yu Zhang received her BEd degree from Hubei University of Economic, Wuhan, China, in 2019. She is currently pursuing an MEd degree in educational history with the department of education, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China. Her current research interest is to practice archery in ancient Chinese Confucian temples.
Yongying Liu
Yongying Liu is a teacher in Jiangxi Primary School, Xinwu District, Wuxi, China. Her current research interests include educators and educational institutions in the late Qing period and early Republic of China.
Yi Sun
Yi Sun is Associate Professor of the Institute of Education History and Culture, Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University. Her research focuses on the history of education and comparative education between China and Western countries.