https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8444-6653
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Abstract
The hydraulic fracturing (fracking) and groundwater contamination debate started as soon as the commercial production of shale gas began in the United States. Since then there have been contrasting studies that have analysed the risk of groundwater contamination in carrying out fracking activities. In India, fracking is at its initial stage and therefore considering the groundwater contamination probabilities at the proposed sites, the Indian legislators/regulators may invoke the precautionary principle. This paper analyses the contrasting research over the probability of groundwater contamination, especially through methane migration, at fracking sites. Further, this paper examines the need for applying the precautionary principle, considering the scientific uncertainty prevailing over methane migration and groundwater contamination, to the Indian legal regime applicable to fracking activities.
Notes
1 Steve Maguire and Jaye Ellis, ‘Redistributing the Burden of Scientific Uncertainty: Implications of the Precautionary Principle for State and Nonstate Actors’ (2005) 11 Global Governance 505.
2 Robert J Lempert and Myles T Collins, ‘Managing the Risk of Uncertain Threshold Responses: Comparison of Robust, Optimum, and Precautionary Approaches’ (2007) 27 Risk Analysis: An International Journal 1009.
3 Vellore Citizens’ Welfare Forum v Union of India (1996) 5 SCC 647, 12.
4 Principle 15, ‘The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 1992’ www.unesco.org/education/pdf/RIO_E.PDF accessed November 28 2019.
5 National Green Tribunal Act (2010), s 20: ‘Tribunal to apply certain principles. – The Tribunal shall, while passing any order or decision or award, apply the principles of sustainable development, the precautionary principle and the polluter pays principle.’
6 See Lempert and Collins (n 2).
7 See n 3.
8 Ibid.
9 C Fautz and others, ‘Discourses on Nanotechnology in Europe, China and India’ in M Ladikas and others (eds), Science and Technology Governance and Ethics (Springer 2015).
10 Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas India, ‘Policy Guideline for the Exploration and Exploitation of Shale Gas Oil and Gas in India’ (2013).
11 Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, ‘Import of Natural Gas’ (2019) http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=180889 accessed 18 September 2019.
12 Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas India, ‘Draft Policy for Exploration and Exploitation of Shale Oil and Gas in India’ (2012) https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=85612 accessed 26 November 2019.
13 Directorate General of Hydrocarbon, ‘Guidelines for Environmental Management during Shale Gas/Oil Exploration and Production’ http://dghindia.gov.in/assets/downloads/59645efa09b1cGuidelines_for_Environmental_Management_during_Shale_Gas_Oil_Exploration_and_Production.pdf accessed 18 October 2019.
14 Iain C Scotchman, ‘Shale Gas Fracking Exploration for Unconventional Hydrocarbons’ (2016) 127 Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 535.
15 Ibid.
16 See n 13.
17 Ibid.
18 Liz Thomas, ‘Shale-gas Extraction and Hydraulic Fracturing Accompany Methane Contamination of Drinking Water’ (Yale Environment Review, 17 September 2012) https://environment-review.yale.edu/shale-gas-extraction-and-hydraulic-fracturing-accompany-methane-contamination-drinking-water-0 accessed 18 September 2019.
19 SG Osborn and others, ‘Methane Contamination of Drinking Water Accompanying Gas-Well Drilling and Hydraulic Fracturing’ (2011) 108 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 8172.
20 US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), ‘Actions to Reduce Methane Emissions from the Oil and Natural Gas Industry’ (2015).
21 Official Journal of European Union, Commission Recommendation on Minimum Principles for the Exploration and Production of Hydrocarbons (Such as Shale Gas) using High-volume Hydraulic Fracturing (2014) https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32014H0070 accessed 26 November 2019.
22 Directorate General for Environment, European Commission, Application in Relevant Member States of the Commission Recommendations on Minimum Principles for the Exploration and Production of Hydrocarbons (such as Shale Gas) Using High-Volume Hydraulic Fracturing and Related Developments Relevant for Hydrocarbon Activities (2018) https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/821b0b31-78ee-11e8-ac6a-01aa75ed71a1/language-en/format-PDF/source-73186205 accessed 6 November 2019.
23 Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, India, ‘Shale Gas Exploration Status in the Country’ (2016) https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=154501 accessed 6 November 2019.
24 G Bhattacharya, ‘Natural Gas, Unconventional Resources Can Assist India in Meeting Future Energy Demand’ (2016) 114(11) Oil & Gas Journal 46.
25 S Yadav, GK Sarangi and MP Ram Mohan, ‘Challenges in Shale Gas Production Cannot Be Resolved by Generic Environment Clearance Processes’ (2018) 53 Economic & Political Weekly www.epw.in/node/152972/pdf accessed 28 November 2019.
26 See: Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, ‘Policy Framework for Exploration and Exploitation of Unconventional Hydrocarbons under Existing Production Sharing Contracts (PSCs), Coal Bed Methane (CBM) Contracts and Nomination Fields’ (2018) http://petroleum.nic.in/sites/default/files/policy_framework_E.pdf accessed 18 November 2019; Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, ‘Amendment to the Definition of Petroleum’ (2018) http://petroleum.nic.in/sites/default/files/amendment_in_definition.pdf; Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, Resolution relating to the ‘Hydrocarbon Exploration and Licensing Policy’ (2016) http://petroleum.nic.in/sites/default/files/HELP.pdf.
27 Yadav, Sarangi and Ram Mohan (n 25).
28 See n 13.
29 Directorate General of Hydrocarbon, ‘Hydrocarbon Exploration and Licensing Policy’ (2016) http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=137638 accessed 18 September 2019.
30 Government of India, ‘Major Policy Initiatives to Give a Boost to Petroleum and Hydrocarbon Sector’ (2016) https://pib.gov.in/newsite/printrelease.aspx?relid=137661 accessed 6 November 2019.
31 See:
As per existing contractual regime of PSCs [Under NELP], existing Contractors are not allowed to explore and exploit CBM or other unconventional hydrocarbons in already allotted licensed/leased area … with the approval of this policy, there will be complete shift from ‘One hydrocarbon Resource Type’ to ‘Uniform Licensing Policy’ which is presently applicable in Hydrocarbon Exploration & Licensing Policy (HELP) …
32 Ibid.
33 Petroleum and Natural Gas Rules, 1959, Rule 3 (K) ‘naturally occurring hydrocarbon which in the form of natural gas or a liquid or solid form, or a mixture thereof, however, will not include helium occurring in association with petroleum or coal or shale’.
34 ‘Ease of doing business’ aims at making India a manufacturing hub while eliminating unnecessary laws and regulations. On the one hand it targets easier and shorter bureaucratic processes and procedures and on the other hand it intends to make government more responsive, transparent and accountable. To make the campaign a success states have a vital role to play in promoting investor confidence. The ease or difficulty of doing business in a state is a function of the structures/framework put in place by the states along with its effective implementation. See Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas India, Resolution No O- 31018/149/2016-ONG.III, 5 April 2018 http://petroleum.nic.in/sites/default/files/DSFEnglish.pdf accessed 12 September 2019.
35 S Koonan, ‘Revamping the Groundwater Legal Regime in India: Towards Ensuring Equity and Sustainability’ (2016) 12(2) Socio-Legal Review 45.
36 Subhash Kumar v State of Bihar, AIR 1991 SC 420.
37 Ibid.
38 Nitya Jacob and Amandeep Kang, ‘An Atlas of India's Groundwater Aquifers’ (Down to Earth, 17 September 2015) www.downtoearth.org.in/news/an-atlas-of-indias-groundwater-aquifers--39225 accessed 3 March 2019.
39 ‘An aquifer is described as a rock or rock material that has the capacity of storing and transmitting water such that it becomes available in sufficient quantities through mechanisms like wells and springs’. H Kulkarni and PS Vijay Shankar, ‘Groundwater: Towards an Aquifer Management Framework’ (2009) 44(6) Economic and Political Weekly 13, 45.
40 Sujith Koonan ‘Groundwater Legal Regime in India: Towards a Paradigm Shift’ (2016), Ground Water Forum www.globalwaterforum.org/2016/12/12/groundwater-legal-regime-in-india-towards-a-paradigm-shift accessed 18 November 2019.
41 Ibid.
42 Ibid.
43 Jacob and others (n 38).
44 (1997) 11 SCC 312.
45 Subhash Kumar (n 36).
46 Vikrant Kumar Tongad v Union of India & Ors, OA 59/2012 and Shailesh Singh v Hotel Holiday, Regency Moradabad & Ors, OA No 176/2015.
47 Shailesh Singh (n 46).
48 Shailesh Singh (n 46), 15.
49 See n 31.
50 M Mohan and S Yadav, ‘Shale Gas Exploration: Addressing Water Issues’ (The Hindu Business Line, New Delhi, 14 August 2019) 8.
51 Yadav, Sarangi and Ram Mohan (n 25).
52 Directorate General of Hydrocarbon, ‘Shale Oil/Gas Blocks’ http://dghindia.gov.in/index.php/view_block_details accessed 18 October 2018.
53 Yadav, Sarangi and Ram Mohan (n 25).
54 OGJ Editors, ‘Essar to Lift Indian CBM Output, Study Shale’ (Oil and Gas Journal, 10 August 2018) www.ogj.com/articles/2018/08/essar-to-lift-indian-cbm-output-study-shale.html accessed 18 October 2019.
55 The Constitution of India 1949, Art 246, Seventh Schedule, List I, Entry 53.
56 The Constitution of India 1949, Art 246, Seventh Schedule, List II, Entries 17 and 23.
57 In cases of any conflict between the central and state governments, the central government prevails (The Constitution of India 1949, Art 254(1)).
58 Directorate General of Hydrocarbon, India http://dghindia.gov.in.
59 See n 13.
60 Yadav, Sarangi and Ram Mohan (n 25).
61 Ministry of Environment and Forests, ‘Environmental Impact Assessment Notification 2006’ www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/so1533.pdf accessed 18 September 2019.
62 Ibid.
63 Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change, Environmental Impact Assessment Notification 2006’ (2006) www.environmentwb.gov.in/pdf/EIA%20Notification,%202006.pdf accessed 7 November 2019; RMR Turaga, ‘The Politics of Formulation of Environmental Impact Assessment Regulation in India: A Case Study’ (2016) 18(02) Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy and Management, Article no 1650016.
64 Ariane Dilay, Alan P Diduck and Kirit Patel, ‘Environmental Justice in India: A Case Study of Environmental Impact Assessment, Community Engagement and Public Interest Litigation’ (2019) Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal (forthcoming).
65 Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change – India, ‘Terms of Reference [TOR] for EIA Report for Activities / Projects Requiring Environmental Clearance’ (2009) http://environmentclearance.nic.in/writereaddata/Form-1A/HomeLinks/EIA%20TORs%20Aug09.pdf accessed 7 November 2019.
66 M Menon and K Kohli, ‘Environmental Regulation in India’ (2015) 50(50) Economic & Political Weekly 21.
67 See n 25.
68 See n 50.
69 ‘At present, the recycling of water is not a common practice (although this may change if shale gas developments move beyond the exploration stage to the production stage) and the supply of/volume of freshwater required is a significant problem (particularly in areas which experience water shortages) given that water is likely to be sourced from utilities operators. Estimates of water use in the literature have ranged from 250 to 4,000 m3 for drilling and 7,000 to 23,000 m3 for hydraulic fracturing.’ See J Hawkins, ‘“We Want Experts”: Fracking and the Case of Expert Excess’ (2019) Journal of Environmental Law (forthcoming); see also SG Osborn and others, ‘Methane Contamination of Drinking Water Accompanying Gas-Well Drilling and Hydraulic Fracturing’ (2011) 108 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 8172.
70 To prevent penetrations of shale fluid or methane gas into nearby aquifers.
71 N de Sadeleer, Environmental Principles: From Political Slogans to Legal Rules (Oxford University Press 2002).
72 See n 13.
73 See n 3.
74 Aaron Holdway, ‘Reducing Uncertainty: The Need to Clarify the Key Elements of the Precautionary Principle’ (2008) 1 Consilience 37. https://consiliencejournal.org/2008/02/09/reducing-uncertainty-the-need-to-clarify-the-key-elements-of-the-precautionary-principle accessed 18 November 2019.
75 Ibid.
76 See n 3.
77 JB Wiener, ‘Precautionary Principle’ in Elgar Encyclopaedia of Environmental Law (Edward Elgar Publishing Limited 2018); Carolyn Raffensperger and Joel A Tickner (eds), Protecting Public Health and the Environment: Implementing the Precautionary Principle (Island Press 1999).
78 Ibid.
79 JB Wiener, ‘Precaution in a Multi-Risk World’ in Dennis D Paustenbach (ed), The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards: A Textbook of Case Studies (John Wiley & Sons, 1989).
80 Chi Kong Chyong and David M Reiner, ‘Economics and Politics of Shale Gas in Europe’ (2015) 4(1), Economics of Energy & Environmental Policy 69.
81 R Lofstedt, ‘The Precautionary Principle in the EU: Why a Formal Review Is Long Overdue’ (2014) 16 Risk Management 137.
82 Vellore Citizens’ Welfare Forum (n 3).
83 See n 3.
84 AP Pollution Control Board v MV Nayudu, AIR 1999 SC 812.
85 Wiener (n 77).
86 see n 82.
87 E Barth-Naftilan, J Sohng and JE Saiers, ‘Methane in Groundwater before, during, and after Hydraulic Fracturing of the Marcellus Shale’ (2018) 115 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 6970.
88 Avner Venghosh Research Group, ‘Duke Study on Shale Gas and Fracking’ (Duke Nicholas School of Environment) https://sites.nicholas.duke.edu/avnervengosh/duke-study-on-shale-gas-and-fracking accessed 18 October 2018.
89 Barth-Naftilan and others (n 87).
90 TJ Centner, ‘Oversight of Shale Gas Production in the United States and the Disclosure of Toxic Substances’ (2013) 38 Resources Policy 233.
91 MSHM Mehany and A Guggemos, ‘A Literature Survey of the Fracking Economic and Environmental Implications in the United States’ (2015) 118 Procedia Engineering 169.
92 Ibid.
93 TH Darrah and others, ‘Noble Gases Identify the Mechanisms of Fugitive Gas Contamination in Drinking-Water Wells Overlying the Marcellus and Barnett Shales’ (2014) 111 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of United States of America 14076.
94 LJ Molofsky and others, ‘Methane in Pennsylvania Water Wells Unrelated to Marcellus Shale Fracturing’ (2011) 109(19) Oil & Gas Journal 54.
95 United States Environment Protection Agency, ‘Draft Executive Summary: Assessment of the Potential Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas on Drinking Water Resources’ www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-06/documents/hf_es_erd_jun2015.pdf accessed 18 October 2018.
96 United States Environment Protection Agency, ‘Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (Executive Summary)’ (2016) https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/hfstudy/recordisplay.cfm?deid=332990 accessed 18 October 2019.
97 JP Nicot and others, ‘Controls on Methane Occurrences in Shallow Aquifers Overlying the Haynesville Shale Gas Field, East Texas’ (2017) 55 Groundwater 469; University of Texas at Austin News, ‘Researchers Link Methane in Groundwater in Parker and Hood Counties to Natural Sources’ (2017) https://news.utexas.edu/2017/03/08/methane-in-groundwater-linked-to-natural-sources accessed 18 November 2019.
98 UT News, ‘No Link Between Barnett Shale Natural Gas Production and Methane in Groundwater, Studies Conclude’ (The University of Texas at Austin) https://news.utexas.edu/2018/09/24/methane-in-barnett-area-groundwater-naturally-occurring accessed 18 September 2019.
99 T Wen and others, ‘Exploring How to Use Groundwater Chemistry to Identify Migration of Methane Near Shale Gas Wells in the Appalachian Basin’ (2019) 53 Environmental Science & Technology 9317; H Lu and others, ‘Comprehensive Groundwater Safety Assessment under Potential Shale Gas Contamination Based on Integrated Analysis of Reliability–Resilience–Vulnerability and Gas Migration Index’ (2019) 578 Journal of Hydrology, Article no 124072; P Ladevèze and others, ‘Fault and Natural Fracture Control on Upward Fluid Migration: Insights from a Shale Gas Play in the St. Lawrence Platform, Canada’ (2019) 27 Hydrogeology Journal 121.
100 Narmada Bachao Andolan v Union of India and Others, [2000] 10 S.C.C. 664.
101 Rajendra Singh & Ors v Government of NCT of Delhi & Ors, 3 November 2008, para 34.
102 Krishan Kant Singh v M/S Triverni Engg Industries Ltd, OA No 317 of 2014.
103 Rio Declaration, Principle 16: ‘National authorities should endeavour to promote the internalization of environmental costs and the use of economic instruments, taking into account the approach that the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution, with due regard to the public interest and without distorting international trade and investment.’
104 Vimarbhai v Tehri Hydro Development Corporation, MA No 376 of 2016.
105 Krishan Kant v Triveni, OA No 317/2014.
106 NGT Act, s 17(3).
107 Barth-Naftilan, Sohng and Saiers (n 87).
108 Z Lees, ‘Anticipated Harm, Precautionary Regulation and Hydraulic Fracturing’ (2011) 13 Vt J Envtl L 575.
109 JE Viñuales, ‘Legal Techniques for Dealing with Scientific Uncertainty in Environmental Law’ (2010) 43 Vand J Transnat’l L 437.
110 United States Environment Protection Agency, ‘Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (Executive Summary)’ (2016) https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/hfstudy/recordisplay.cfm?deid=332990 accessed 18 November 2019. The study concluded that the probability of contamination is higher during these six circumstances, namely: (1) water withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing in times or areas of low water availability, particularly in areas with limited or declining groundwater resources; (2) spills during the handling of hydraulic fracturing fluids and chemicals or produced water that result in large volumes or high concentrations of chemicals reaching groundwater resources; (3) injection of hydraulic fracturing fluids into wells with inadequate mechanical integrity, allowing gases or liquids to move to groundwater resources; (4) injection of hydraulic fracturing fluids directly into groundwater resources; (5) discharge of inadequately treated hydraulic fracturing wastewater to surface water; and (6) disposal or storage of hydraulic fracturing wastewater in unlined pits resulting in contamination of groundwater resources.
111 See Z Lees (n 108).
112 See S Koonan (n 35).