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Abstract
Since the 1800s, ground staking of mining claims on public lands in the United States and Canadian free entry (FE) systems has successfully facilitated mineral discoveries and mine development. One weakness of ground staking regimes is claim staking disputes that create uncertainty for mineral developers and undermine security of tenure. During the last 19 years, electronic claim map selection systems have been implemented in Quebec, British Columbia, Ontario and other provinces to eliminate both the unnecessary expense of staking claims on the ground and the costs arising from claim staking disputes. Competition, a crucial element of FE, is preserved in the more efficient online claim map selection process. Electronic systems with digital maps created for online claim selection can assist governments in preventing mineral takings claims and compensation payments and avoid some disputes between indigenous peoples and mineral developers experienced in ground staking regimes.
Notes
1 In addition to British Columbia (BC), Ontario and Quebec, Newfoundland and Labrador (Online Mineral Claims Staking System, March 2009); New Brunswick (NB e-CLAIMS, April 2010); Saskatchewan (MARS, December 2012); Nova Scotia (NovaROC, August 2013); the Nunavut Territory adopted its map selection system in April 2016 and the Northwest Territories is in the process of adopting new mining legislation; Manitoba and the Yukon Territory have not adopted online map selection.
2 See Randy Hubbard, ‘The Mining Law of 1872: Past, Present and Future?’ (2003) 17(3) J Nat Resources & Envtl L 149; Andrew P Morriss, Roger Meiners and Andrew Dorchak, ‘Hardrock Homesteads: Free Access and the General Mining Law of 1872’ (2006) 24 Journal of Energy & Natural Resources Law 255.
3 Bureau of Land Management, US Dept of the Interior, ‘Mining Claims and Sites on Federal Lands’ (P-048, BLM/WO/GI-17/002+3800); Mining Law of 1872 as amended (30 USC 22 et seq).
4 611 F 2d 1277 (9th Cir 1980).
5 Ibid at 1280.
6 Constitution Act 1867 (UK), 30 & 31 Victoria, c 3, s 109; however, minerals on military reserves, Indian reserves and national parks in the provinces and territories are under federal jurisdiction.
7 Elaine Hughes, Arlene Kwasniak and Alastair Lucas, Public Lands and Resources Law in Canada (Irwin Law 2016) 66.
8 The General Mining Law of 1872, c 152, 17 Stat 91, as amended (30 USC et seq) continues in force.
9 MS Hedley, ‘Acts of the Mineral Industry’ (Transactions of the 8th BC Natural Resources Conference, 23–25 February 1955, Victoria, BC) 26–27.
10 ‘Minerals and the Economy’ (Natural Resources Canada, 2018) www.nrcan.gc.ca/our-natural-resources/minerals-mining/minerals-metals-facts/minerals-and-economy/20529 accessed 2 October 2019.
11 Government of Quebec, ‘GESTIM Plus: A Mining Title Management System’ https://mern.gouv.qc.ca/en/mines/mining-rights/mining-title-management-system-gestim accessed 23 August 2019.
12 British Columbia Ministry of Natural Resource Operations, ‘Mineral Tenure Act Regulation – Proposed Amendments: Summary Report’ (2011), at 3.
13 For additional analysis of this weakness of ground staking systems see Barry Barton, Canadian Law of Mining (Canadian Institute of Resources Law 1993); G McOuat, ‘Can Canada's Free Entry System Survive? – Mitigating the Threats to Security of Tenure in Canada's Mining Industry’ (Centre for Petroleum Law and Policy 1994); Barry Barton, ‘The Future of the Free Entry System for Mining in Canada's North’ in M Ross and JO Saunders (eds), Disposition of Natural Resources: Options and Issues for Northern Lands (Canadian Institute of Resources Law 1997) 81.
14 Iron Silver Mining Co v Eligen & Smelting Co (1886) 118 US 196; Book v Justice Min Co 58 F 106 (1893) D Nev Cir; Ledoux v Forester 94 F 600, 602 (1899); Vevelsted v Flynn 230 F2d 695 (9th Cir 1956).
15 Waterhouse v Liftchild (1897) 6 BCR 424 (BCSC); Coplen v Callahan [1900] 30 SCR 555; Manley v Collom (1902) 32 SCR 371 (SCC); Sandberg v Ferguson (1904) 9 BCR 123 (BCSC), aff’d 35 SCR 476 (SCC); Clark v Docksteader (1905) 36 SCR 622 (SCC); Re Gray and Bradshaw (1907) 1 MCC (Ont HC); Evis v Young (1915) 2 MCC 264; Re Dupont and Cole (1931) 65 OLR 562 (Ont CA); Fernholm v Sproat (1938) 3 MCC 92.
16 Barry Barton, Canadian Law of Mining (Canadian Institute of Resources Law 1993), p 227–228, 325.
17 Government of British Columbia, ‘Introduction to MTO’ www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/mineral-exploration-mining/mineral-titles/mineral-placer-titles/mineraltitlesonline/about-mto/introduction-to-mto accessed 23 August 2019.
18 Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, s 14.
19 R v Tener [1985] 1 SCR 533 (Tener).
20 Such as the Expropriation Act, RSC 1985, c E-21; Expropriation Act, RSBC 1996, c 125; Expropriations Act, RSO 1990, c E 26.
21 Tener (n 19) at para 34.
22 Ibid at para 59.
23 Ibid at para 5.
24 Casamiro Resource Co v British Columbia (AG) (1991) 55 BCLR (2d) 346 (CA); Cream Silver Mines Ltd v British Columbia (AG) (1993) 75 BCLR (2d) 324 (CA).
25 George Hood, ‘Windy Craggy: An Analysis of Environmental Interest Group and Mining Industry Approaches’ (1995) 21 Resources Policy 13, 15.
26 Ibid.
27 Allan Ingelson, L Mitchell and S Assie, ‘Coal and Coalbed Methane Development in the Flathead – An International Water Dispute’ (2009) 22 Global Business & Development Law Journal 155, 189.
28 Ibid at 158.
29 British Columbia, Legislative Assembly, ‘Speech from the Throne’ (39th Parl 2nd sess, 9 February 2010) at 11 www.leg.bc.ca/Pages/BCLASS-Legacy.aspx#%2Fcontent%2Flegacy%2Fweb%2F39th2nd%2F4-8-39-2.htm accessed 13 August 2019 (‘Throne Speech’).
30 Justin Hunter, ‘BC Pays off Miner for Loss in Protected Flathead River Area’ (The Globe and Mail, Victoria, 2014) www.theglobeandmail.com/news/british-columbia/bc-pays-off-miner-for-loss-in-protected-flathead-river-area/article18202545 accessed 2 September 2019.
31 ‘Framing the Future of Mineral Exploration in British Columbia: AME BC Mineral Land Access and Use Report’ (2016) amebc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/AME-BC-Mineral-Land-Access-and-Use-Report-2015-No-AppF-1.pdf accessed 1 October 2019.
32 Examples include Halferdahl v Canada Mining Recorder (Whitehorse Mining District), [1992] 1 FC 813 (FCA); Canada (Attorney General) v Halferdahl, [1996] FCJ 694; Platinex Inc v Kitchenuhmaykoosib Inninuwug First Nation, 2006 ONSC 26171; Ross River Dena Council v Government of Yukon, 2012 YKCA 14.
33 2012 YKCA 14.
34 Nigel Bankes, ‘The Death of Free Entry Regimes in Canada?’ (2013) https://ablawg.ca/2013/01/15/the-death-of-free-entry-mining-regimes-in-canada accessed 17 June 2019.
35 Ross (n 32) at para 37.
36 Ibid at para 43.
37 Ministry of Energy, Northern Development and Mines, ‘Ontario Takes Bold Steps to Modernize Mining Act’ (News release, 30 April 2009) https://news.ontario.ca/mndmf/en/2009/04/ontario-takes-bold-steps-to-modernize-mining-act.html accessed 1 October 2019.
38 Ibid.
39 Mining Act, CQLR c M-13.1.
40 Énergie et Ressources Naturelles, ‘GESTIM – a Mining Title Management System’ (2019) https://mern.gouv.qc.ca/en/mines/mining-rights/mining-title-management-system-gestim accessed 2 July 2019 (Gestim).
41 Ibid.
42 Énergie et Ressources Naturelles, ‘GESTIM Plus – Map Designation’. ftp://ftp.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/Public/Gestim/guides_anglais/1-Map%20Designation.pdf accessed 2 October 2019.
44 Mineral Tenure Act Regulation, BC Reg 529/2004.
45 Mineral Tenure Act, 1996, c 292, Part 2.
46 Ibid.
47 Government of British Columbia, ‘Acquiring/Registering Claims’ www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/mineral-exploration-mining/mineral-titles/mineral-placer-titles/claims-mineral-placer-titles#Acquiring accessed 2 July 2019.
48 Government of British Columbia, ‘Mineral Titles: Frequently Asked Questions’ www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/mineral-exploration-mining/mineral-titles/frequently-asked-questions accessed 2 July 2019.
49 BC Ministry of Natural Resource Operations, ‘Mineral Tenure Act Regulation – Proposed Amendments: Summary Report’ (2011) www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/mineral-exploration-mining/documents/mineral-titles/mineral-placer-titles-getting-started/legislation/mineral-tenure-act-regulation-summary-report-march-2011.pdf accessed 2 August 2019.
50 Ibid at 3.
51 Ibid.
52 British Columbia, ‘Introduction to MTO’ www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/mineral-exploration-mining/mineral-titles/mineral-placer-titles/mineraltitlesonline/about-mto/introduction-to-mto accessed 10 July 2019.
53 Ibid.
54 Ministry of Energy, Northern Development and Mines, ‘Mining Act Awareness Program’ www.mlas.mndm.gov.on.ca/maapp/en accessed 10 July 2019 (Mining Act Awareness Program).
55 Ministry of Energy, Northern Development and Mines, ‘Mining Act’ www.mndm.gov.on.ca/en/mines-and-minerals/mining-act accessed 10 July 2019.
56 Mining Act Awareness Program (n 54).
57 Ministry of Energy, Northern Development and Mines, Claim Holder's Guide to Conversion (2018) www.mndm.gov.on.ca/sites/default/files/claim_holders_guide_to_conversion_en.pdf accessed 31 July 2019.
58 Ibid.
59 Mining Act Awareness Program (n 54).
60 Ibid.
61 Ibid.
62 Barton, Canadian Law of Mining (n 13) 152–158.
63 Mining Act, CQLR c M-13.1, s 19; Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, Part 2; Mining Act, RSO 1990, c M.14, s 18.
64 Mining Act, CQLR c M-13.1, s 19, s 61; Mineral Tenure Act, RSBC 1996, c 292, Part 2, ‘Continuation of claims’; Mining Act, RSO 1990, c M.14, s 81.
65 Ibid.
66 Valterra Resource Corp v Chief Gold Commissioner, 2013 BCSC 1172 (Valterra).
67 Ibid.
68 Mining Act, RSQ, c M-13.
69 Mineral Tenure Act (n 45) s 14(5).
70 Mineral Tenure Act (n 45); s 21: ‘an area of land established as a Provincial heritage property under the Heritage Conservation Act’.
71 Mining Act, RSO 1990, c M.14.
72 Ibid.
73 Platinex Inc v Kitchenuhmaykoosib Inninuwug First Nation, 2006 ONSC 26171 (Platinex).
74 Richard H Bartlett, Resource Development and Aboriginal Land Rights (Canadian Institute of Resources Law 1991); Barry Stuart, ‘The Potential of Land Claims Negotiations for Resolving Resource-Use Disputes’ in Monique Ross and J Owen Saunders (eds), Growing Demands on a Shrinking Heritage: Managing Resource-Use Conflicts (Canadian Institute of Resources Law 1992); Monique Ross and Dave Laidlaw, ‘Alberta First Nations Consultation & Accommodation Handbook’ (Canadian Institute of Resources Law 2014) and David Laidlaw, ‘Alberta First Nations Consultation & Accommodation Handbook – Updated 2016’ (Canadian Institute of Resources Law 2016); Dwight Newman, Mining Law of Canada (LexisNexis 2018).
75 Constitution Act, 1982, s 35(2) being Sch B to the Canada Act 1982 (UK), c 11 (Constitution Act).
76 Ibid at s 35(1).
77 Halferdahl v Canada Mining Recorder (Whitehorse Mining District), [1992] 1 FC 813; rev’g 14 NR 272 (CA); Platinex Inc v Kitchenuhmaykoosib Inninuwug First Nation, 2006 ONSC; Ross River Dena Council v Government of Yukon, 2012 YKCA 14.
78 Government of Canada, ‘Indigenous Peoples and Cultures’ www.canada.ca/en/services/culture/canadian-identity-society/indigenous-peoples-cultures.html accessed 15 August 2019.
79 Janis Shandro and others, ‘Risks and Impacts to First Nation Health and the Mount Polley Mine Tailings Dam Failure’ (2017) 12(2) Int J of Indigenous Health 84.
80 Delgamuukw v British Columbia, 1997 SCC 302, [1997] 3 SCR 1010 at para 140.
81 Ibid.
82 R v Sparrow, [1990] 1 SCR 1075 (Sparrow).
83 Ibid at para 80; Heather L Treacy, Tara L Campbell and Jamie D Dickson, ‘The Current State of the Law in Canada on Crown Obligations to Consult and Accommodate Aboriginal Interests in Resource Development’ (2007) 44 Alta L Rev 571.
84 Sparrow (n 82) at para 80.
85 Delgamuukw (n 80) at para 199.
86 Ibid at paras 160–169.
87 Constitution Act (n 75), s 35(3). The entrenchment of these rights is further protected under s 25, which provides that ‘The guarantee in this Charter of certain rights and freedoms shall not be construed so as to abrogate or derogate from any aboriginal, treaty or other rights or freedoms that pertain to the aboriginal peoples of Canada, including (a) any rights or freedoms that have been recognized by the Royal Proclamation of October 7, 1763; and (b) any rights or freedoms that may be acquired by the aboriginal peoples of Canada by way of land claims settlement’.
88 John J Borrows and Leonard I Rotman, Aboriginal Legal Issues: Cases, Materials & Commentary (2nd edn, LexisNexis Canada Inc, Butterworths 2003) 101.
89 Joan G Fairweather, A Common Hunger: Land Rights in Canada and South Africa (University of Calgary Press 2006) 46.
90 Canada, Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada, ‘The Numbered Treaties (1871–1921)’ www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360948213124/1544620003549 accessed 1 August 2019.
91 See the Constitution Act, 1982, s 91(24); R v Sparrow [1990] 1 SCR 1075 (SCC); Blueberry River Indian Band v Canada [1995] 4 SCR 344; Delgamuukw v British Columbia [1997] 3 SCR 1010; Leonard Rotman, ‘Provincial Fiduciary Obligations to First Nations: The Nexus between Governmental Power and Responsibility’ (1994) 32 Osgoode Hall LJ 735. Also cf Peter Manus, ‘Indigenous Peoples’ Environmental Rights: Evolving Common Law Perspectives in Canada, Australia, and the United States’ (2006) 33 BC Envtl Aff L Rev 1.
92 Halferdahl (n 77).
93 RSC 1970, c Y-4.
94 Ibid.
95 Nigel Bankes and Cheryl Sharvit, Aboriginal Title and Free Entry Mining Regimes in Northern Canada (Canadian Arctic Resources Committee 1998) 1.
96 Karen Campbell, ‘Undermining Our Future: How Mining’s Privileged Access to Land Harms People and the Environment’ (Discussion Paper, West Coast Environmental Law 2004); Nigel Bankes, ‘The Case for the Abolition of Free Entry Mining Regimes’ (2004) 24(2) J Land Resources & Environmental Law 317; Dawn Hoogeveen, ‘Sub-Surface Property, Free-Entry Mineral Staking and Settler Colonialism in Canada’ (2015) 47 Antipode 121, 125.
97 Haida Nation v British Columbia (Minister of Forests), [2004] 3 SCR 511, para 10.
98 Ibid at para 27.
99 Platinex (n 73).
100 Ibid at para 31.
101 Ibid at paras 37–38.
102 Ibid at paras 92–93.
103 Platinex v Kitchenuhmaykoosib Inninuwug First Nation & AG Ontario [2007] ONSC 166637, paras 168–172.
104 Platinex Inc v Kitchenuhmaykoosib Inninuwug First Nation [2007] OJ No 2214 (Supt Ct Jus).
105 Ibid paras 138–139.
106 Karen Howlett, ‘Mining Company Surrenders Claim to Native Land in $5 Million Settlement, Opening Ontario's Far North’ (The Globe and Mail, Toronto, 15 December 2009) www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/mining-company-surrenders-claim-to-native-land-in-5-million-settlement-opening-ontarios-far-north/article1205845 accessed 2 August 2019.
107 Ibid.
108 Moulton Contracting Ltd v British Columbia, [2013] BCSC 2348; see also Behn v Moulton Contracting Ltd [2013] 2 SCR 227; the SCC dismissed the appeal.
109 Introduced by Bill-179 that amended the Mining Act, RSO 1990, c M.14; Ministry of Energy, Northern Development and Mines, ‘Mining Act’ www.mndm.gov.on.ca/en/mines-and-minerals/mining-act accessed 1 September 2019.
110 J Andrew Grant and others, ‘A Historical Institutionalist Understanding of Participatory Governance and Aboriginal Peoples: The Case of Policy Change in Ontario's Mining Sector’ (2014) 95 Social Science Quarterly 978.
111 Ministry of Energy, Natural Resources and Mines, ‘Sites of Aboriginal Cultural Significance’ www.mndm.gov.on.ca/en/mines-and-minerals/mining-act/mining-act-modernization/sites-aboriginal-cultural-significance accessed 31 August 2019.
112 Mining Act (n 71) at s 78.2(1).
113 Ministry of Energy, Natural Resources and Mines, ‘Sites of Aboriginal Cultural Significance’ www.mndm.gov.on.ca/en/mines-and-minerals/mining-act/mining-act-modernization/sites-aboriginal-cultural-significance.
114 Chris W Sanderson, Keith B Bergner and Michelle S Jones, ‘The Crown's Duty to Consult Aboriginal Peoples: Towards an Understanding of the Source, Purpose, and Limits of the Duty’ (2012) 49 Alta L Rev 821.
115 Behn (n 108).
116 Clyde River (Hamlet) v Petroleum Geo-Services Inc, 2017 SCC 40 (CanLII); Nigel Bankes, ‘Clyde River and Chippewas of the Thames: Some Clarifications Provided but Some Challenges Remain’ (ABlawg, 4 August 2017) https://ablawg.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Blog_NB_Clyde_River_CTFN.pdf accessed 15 August 2019.