The Nigerian electricity regulatory framework: hotspots and challenges for off-grid renewable electricity development

Abstract

This paper analyses the policies and laws that govern the Nigerian electricity sector to ascertain the opportunities and challenges it presents for addressing the problem of affordability of the initial capital costs and financial sustainability of off-grid renewable electricity (OGRE) faced by private investors. It is argued that the absence of sector-specific targets for OGRE and the preference for gas electricity erode the effectiveness of the policies in enabling laws that will address the mentioned barriers to OGRE development. Analysis of the relevant laws shows that some of the provisions present opportunities for addressing the identified barriers. The latter include the establishment of the Rural Electrification Fund (REF) which provides capital grants to OGRE developers in rural areas, under the Electric Sector Power Reform Act 2005. However, some provisions inflame the identified obstacles to OGRE development, including the expensive licensing fees for OGRE projects and overriding powers of the National Assembly over a State House of Assembly for making laws that cover the sector. Key recommendations are made for the adoption of an overarching renewable energy law that will have some recommended features for addressing the identified barriers to the development of OGRE.

Notes

1 Currently, 45.6 per cent of the population in Nigeria do not have access to electricity. See World Bank, ‘Access to Electricity in Nigeria’ (2019) https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?locations=NG accessed 12 May 2020; Nnaemeka Vincent Emodi, ‘Improving Electricity Access in Nigeria: Obstacles and the Way Forward’ (2015) 5(1) International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy 335.

2 The rural electrification rate as at December 2018 was 39 per cent. See World Bank, ‘Program for Result Appraisal Document’ (2018) http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/115731517496257028/pdf/124328-PGID-P164001-Appraisal-PUBLIC.pdf accessed 5 May 2020.

3 DW, ‘Living in the Dark in Rural Nigeria’ (2018) www.dw.com/en/living-in-the-dark-in-ruralnigeria/a-46755603 accessed 5 May 2020. This stands in contrast to the 55 per cent access to electricity in urban areas of Nigeria. See USAID, ‘Nigerian Power African Fact Sheet’ www.usaid.gov/powerafrica/nigeria accessed 5 May 2020.

4 Marilyn Chikaodili Amobi, ‘Deregulating the Electricity Industry in Nigeria: Lessons from the British Reform’ (2007) 41 Socio-Eco Planning Sciences 291, 294.

5 Federal Republic of Nigeria, ‘The National Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Policy (NREEEP) 2015' (2015) www.power.gov.ng/download/NREEE%20POLICY%202015-%20FEC%20APPROVED%20COPY.pdf accessed 3rd June 2020.

6 Olatomiwa and others, ‘Economic Evaluation of Hybrid Energy Systems for Rural Electrification in Six Geo-Political Zones of Nigeria’ (2015) 83 Renewable Energy 435, 436.

7 OGRE is produced from either standalone or mini-grid electricity technologies. See Ajao KR and others, ‘Electric Energy Supply in Nigeria, Decentralized Energy Approach’ (2009) 24(4) Cogeneration and Distributed Generation Journal 42.

8 Ngozi Chinwa Ole, ‘The Paris Agreement as a Primer for Developing Nigerian Off-Grid Solar Electricity’ (2018) 26 African Journal of International and Comparative Law 426.

9 UNFCCC, ‘Nigeria NDC’ (2015) www.unfccc.int/submissions/NDC/Published%20Documents/Nigeria/1Approved%20Nigeria’s%20INDC_271115.pdf accessed 12 May 2020.

10 UNFCCC, ‘The Paris Agreement 2015: Status of Ratification’ (2020) https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-7-d&chapter=27&clang=_en accessed 12 May 2020.

11 Jan Glazewiski and others, ‘Promoting Renewable Energy in African Countries’ in Yinka Omeregbe and Ada Ordor (eds), Ending Africa’s Energy Deficit and the Law: Achieving Sustainable Energy for All in Africa (Oxford University Press 2018) 252.

12 Oyinkan Chukuka Tasie and Peter Kayode Oniemola, ‘Legal Analysis of Liberalisation and Privitisation of State Owned Companies in the Nigerian Power Sector’ (2016) 27(5) International Company and Commercial Law Review 141.

13 EI Ohimain, ‘Diversification of Nigerian Electricity Generation Sources’ (2014) 10(3) Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning, and Policy 300.

14 Julius Elusakin and others, ‘Challenges of Sustaining Off-Grid Power Generation in Nigerian Rural Communities’ (2014) 2(2) African Journal of Engineering Research 51.

15 Lanre Okanlawon, ‘The Potential of Nigeria’s Residential Solar Rooftop Systems’ (2015) www.renewableenergyworld.com/ugc/articles/2015/02/the-potential-of-nigerias-residential-solarrooftopsystems.html accessed 12 May 2020.

16 Ngozi Chinwa Ole, ‘Combating Electricity Poverty in Nigeria through Off-Grid Renewable Electricity: The Role of Financial Support under the International Climate Change Regime’ (2017) 2(1) International Journal of Innovative Studies in Sociology and Humanities 5.

17 Peter Kayode Oniemola, ‘Powering Nigeria through Renewable Electricity Investments: Legal Framework for Progressive Realization’ (2015) 6(1) Afe Babalola University Journal of Sustainable Development Law 84.

18 Craig Hart and and Dominic Marcellino, ‘Subsidies or Free Markets to Promote Renewables?’ (2012) 3 RELP 196; see also Nelipher Moyo and Vera Songwe, ‘Removal of Fuel Subsidies in Nigeria: An Economic Necessity and A Political Dilemma’ www.brookings.edu/opinions/removal-of-feul-subsidies-in-Nigeria-An-Economic-Necessity-And-A-Political-Dilemma accessed 8 May 2020.

19 EL Efurumibe, ‘Barriers to the Development of Renewable Energy in Nigeria’ (2013) 2(1) SJBT 11, 12.

20 Vincent Nnaemeka Emodi, Energy Policies for Sustainable Development Strategies: The Case of Nigeria (Springer 2016) 51–60.

21 Mohammed T Ladan, ‘Policy, Legislative and Regulatory Challenges in Promoting Renewable Energy in Nigeria’ in R Mwebaza and LJ Kotzé (eds), Environmental Governance and Climate Change in Africa: Legal Perspectives (Institute for Security Studies 2009) 93 at 94–95.

22 For instance, the National Energy Policy 2003 heralded the Electric Power Sector Reform Act (EPSRA) 2005. The National Energy Policy 2003 (NG) provides that laws and regulations should be developed for the management of a liberalised and privatised electricity sub-sector. See NEP 2003 (NG), 71.

23 NREEEP 2015 (n 5) 18; Federal Republic of Nigeria, ‘The National Energy Policy (NEP) 2013' http://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/ins64284.pdf accessed 3rd June 2020.

24 Ibid.

25 Electric Power Sector Reform Act 2005, Laws of the Federation of Nigeria, Cap E7 (NG) s 1(1).

26 Nigerian Electricity Management Services Authority (NEMSA) Establishment Act No 6 of 2015 (NG) https://lawnigeria.com/2019/11/nigerian-electricity-management-authority-nemsa-establishment-act-2014 accessed 3 June 2020.

27 Nigerian Electricity Supply and Installation Standards 2015 (NG), s 1; NEMSA, ‘Certification’ www.nemsa.gov.ng/site/certification-and-testing accessed 5 May 2020.

28 OA Aladeitan and others, ‘Dual Regulatory Agencies in the Nigerian Electricity Supply Industry: An Overkill or Finding the Balance’ (2016) 14(4) OGEL 11–15.

29 Nnaemeka Emodi (n 20) 51–60.

30 The NEP 2013 (n 23) 42.

31 Ibid, 28–32.

32 Ibid, 38; see Musbaudeen O Bamgbopa and others, ‘A Review of Nigerian Energy Policy Implementation and Impact’ (2019) Sustainable Energy Reviews 11.

33 Ibid, 54.

34 Elusakin and others (n 14) 51.

35 Onyi-Ogelle and Helen Obioma, ‘The Implications of Legal Reform in the Nigeria Power Sector’ (2016) 10(3) AFRREV 282.

36 NEP 2013 (n 43); see Nnaemeka Vincent Emodi, ‘The Outcome of Nigeria’s 2019 Presidential Election and Effects on Current Energy Policy’ (2019) 4 Journal of Energy and Natural Resource Law 425, 426–27.

37 NREEEP 2015 (n 5) 14.

38 IRENA is the most renowned international organisation that supports members of the United Nations in their transition to a sustainable future through the development of renewable energy. See IRENA, ‘Vision and Mission’ (2020) www.irena.org/statutevisionmission accessed 24 April 2020. For more commentaries on the role of IRENA in the development of renewable energy, see Sybille Roehrkasten, Global Governance on Renewable Energy: Contracting the Ideas of the German and the Brazalian Government (Springer 2015) 157.

39 IRENA, Renewable Energy Target Setting (IRENA 2015) 27, 33, 34.

40 Ibid.

41 Sadie Cox and others, ‘Solar Power Policy Overview and Good Practices’ (2015) NREL/TP-6A20-64178, 4.

42 IRENA, Renewable Energy Target Setting (n 39) 33.

43 Kayode Oniemola (n 17) 84.

44 Nigerian Energy Support Programme, The Nigerian Energy Sector – an Overview with a Special Emphasis on Renewable Energy, Energy Efficiency and Rural Electrification (Deutsche Gesellschaft für 2014) 91.

45 Nigeria, ‘Nigeria’s Population’ www.worldometers.info/world-population/nigeria-population accessed 5 May 2020.

46 NREEEP 2015 (n 5) 14.

47 NEP 2013 (n 23) 77.

48 IM Bugaje, ‘Remote Area Power Supply in Nigeria: The Prospects of Solar Energy’ (1999) 18 Renewable Energy 491, 492. For more commentary, see Joseph Goldemberg and others, ‘Rural Energy in Developing Countries’ in UNDP, World Energy Assessment: Energy and the Challenge of Sustainability (UNDP 2000) 375.

49 NREEEP 2015 (n 5) 18.

50 Ibid, 41.

51 Ibid, 19. For more commentaries on NREEEP 2015 see Abdou Mahaman Dango, A Guide to Sustainable Energy in Africa (Cambridge Scholars Publishing 2019).

52 Ibid, 14.

53 Ibid; Dolapo Kukoya and others, ‘Business-Focused Legal Analysis and Insight in the Most Significant Jurisdictions Worldwide’ (2020) https://thelawreviews.co.uk/edition/the-renewable-energy-law-reviewedition-2/1196444/nigeria accessed 5 May 2020.

54 Ibid.

55 NREEEP 2015 (n 5) 20-21.

56 Ibid.

57 Nurcan Kilinc Ata, ‘The Impact of Government Policies in the Renewable Energy Investment: Developing a Conceptual Framework and Qualitative Analysis’ (2015) 4(2) Global Advanced Research Journals 76.

58 The constitution provides that

this Constitution is supreme, and its provisions shall have binding force on the authorities and persons throughout the Federal Republic of Nigeria … . The Federal Republic of Nigeria shall not be governed, nor shall any persons or group of persons take control of the Government of Nigeria or any part thereof, except in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.

See the 1999 Constitution of Federal Republic of Nigeria, s 1(1) (2); see also Kalu v Odili (1992) 7 NWLR (pt 512) 130; Attorney General, Ondo State v General of the Federation (2002) 9 NWLR (pt 772) 222 SC; Independent National Electoral Commission v Balarabe Musa (2003) 3 NWLR (pt 806) 72 SC.

59 The 1999 Constitution (n 58) s 16(1)(a)(b), 17(3) (b) (d); see also Adamu v Attorney General of Bornu State (1996) 8 NWLR (pt. 465) 203 CA.

60 The 1999 Constitution (n 58) s 16(2) (a).

61 Ross Ferguson and others, ‘Electricity Use and Economic Development’ (2000) 28(13) Energy Policy 923.

62 Johan Martins, ‘The Impact of the Use of Energy Sources on the Quality of Life of Poor Communities’ (2005) 72(3) Social Indicators Research 373, 400.

63 Mercy Erhun, ‘A Legal Framework for Sustainable Electrical Energy Industry in Nigeria’ (2018) 8 (2) Energy and Environmental Research 45, 48.

64 The 1999 Constitution of Nigeria (n 58) s 20. The Constitution ousts the jurisdiction of the courts in relation to this section. See the 1999 Constitution (n 76) s 6(6) (c); Attorney General of Ondo State v Attorney General of the Federation (2002) 9 NWLR (pt 772); see OVC Ikpeze, ‘Non Justiciability of Chapter II of the Nigerian Constitution as an Impediment to Economic Rights and Development’ (2015) 5(18) Developing Country Studies 45.

65 The 1999 Constitution of Nigeria (n 58) s 33.

66 Jonah Gbemre v Shell Petroleum Development Company and Two others [2005] Suit FHC/B/CS/53/05.

67 Peter Oniemola and Oyinkan Chukuka Tasie, ‘Incorporating Off-Grid Renewable Energy Options under the Framework for Rural Electrification in Nigeria: Legal Challenges’ (2016) 8 International Energy Law Review 327, 331.

68 The 1999 Constitution (n 58) s 4(1); see National Assembly v President (2003) 9 NWLR (pt 824) 104 CA.

69 The 1999 Constitution, s 4(7) (b); see Ojokolobo v Alamu (1987) 3 NWLR (pt 61) 377 SC; Keyamo v Lagos State House of Assembly (2000) 12 NWLR (pt 680) 196 CA.

70 The 1999 Constitution (n 58) s 4(4) (a), Sch 11, item 13 and 14; see Ibibia Worika, ‘Energy Development and Utilization in Africa’ in Adrian Bradbook and others (eds), The Law of Energy for Sustainable Development (Cambridge University Press 2005) 362; see Olumide Sina and Elebiju Afolabi, ‘The Legal and Regulatory Framework for the Nigerian Power Sector’ (2004) 1 OGEL 1.

71 Ibid, s 4(1) and (7).

72 The Doctrine of Covering the field stipulates that if the National Assembly makes a law on any of the matters stipulated in the concurrent list and a State House of Assembly enacts a law with respect to the same matter on the concurrent list, the law made by the National Assembly shall prevail and apply. See Omo G Arishe, ‘Expansion of the Scope of the Doctrine of “Covering the Field”: Thoughts on Attorney General, Abia v. Attorney General Federation’ (2007) Nigerian Law and Practice Journal 1.

73 For further commentary on the doctrine of covering the field, see Benjamin Igwenyi, Modern Constitutional Law in Nigeria (Nwamazi Printing Ltd 2006) 77.

74 NREEEP 2015(n 5) 20-21.

75 Dagwom Yohanna Dang, ‘Revenue Allocation and Economic Development in Nigeria: An Empirical Study’ (2013) 1–7 Sage Open 3.

76 R Suberu, ‘Federalism in Africa: The Nigerian Experience in Comparative Perspective’ (2009) 8 Ethno Politics 67.

77 Ngozi Chinwa Ole, ‘The Role of Renewable Energy Law 2005 in Supporting the Development of Off-Grid Renewable Electricity in China’ (2019) 5 International Energy Law Review 132, 137.

78 Oniemola and Chukuka Tasie (n 67) 333.

79 Attorney General of Ogun State v. Attorney General of the Federation [1982] 1-2 SC 13.

80 Ibid, 41.

81 Ladan (n 21) 94–95.

82 NEMSA Act 2015 (n 26); see U Aneke, ‘Power Sector, a Case for NEMSA Bill' The Sun Newspaper (Abuja, 16 August 2018) www.sunnewsonline.com/new/power-sector-case-nemsa-bill accessed 15 April 2020; see United Nations Environmental Programme, UNEP Handbook for Drafting of Laws on Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Resources (UNEP 2007) 231-32.

83 Lagos State Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, Consultation Document for the Development of a Renewable Energy Policy (Lagos State Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources 2012) 14.

84 Speaker Kaduna State House of Assembly v Adegbe (2010)10 NWLR (pt 1201) 54.

85 NEMSA Act 2015 (n 26) s 6.

86 Yemi Oke, Nigerian Electricity Law and Regulation (Lawlords Publishing Company 2013) 2–19.

87 Nnaemeka Emodi (n 20) 24–51.

88 EPSRA (n 22) s 31; see Ladan (n 21) 94–95.

89 EPSRA (n 22), s. 88(1); Attorney General of Ogun State v. Attorney General of the Federation [1982] 1-2 SC 13; see also Ewah Otu Eleri, ‘Towards a New National Programme on Rural Electrification’ in Ewah Otu Eleri (ed) in Energising Rural Transformation in Nigeria (Mbeyi Publishers 2002) 176, 179.

90 NEMSA, ‘An Address by the Managing Director/CEO at the Courtesy Visit to the Director General Nigerian Television Authority on NEMSA’s Enforcement Roles and Responsibilities in the Nigerian Power Sector and Allied Industries/Workplaces in Nigeria on Thursday Ist of June 2017’ (2017) www.nemsa.gov.ng/site/wp-content/uploads/formidable/33/addreess-by-md-ceo-nemsa-courtesy-visit-to-director-general-nta-1.pdf accessed 2 May 2020.

91 EPSRA (n 22) s 31; see Oxford Business Group, The Report: Nigeria 2013 (Oxford Business Group 2013) 341; Osaretin Aigbovo and Ebiton Ogboka, ‘Electric Power Sector Reform Act 2005 and the Development of Renewable Energy in Nigeria’ (2016) 1 Renewable Energy Law and Policy 22.

92 EPSRA (n 22) s 32(1); see Aliyu Idris and others, ‘An Assessment of the Power Sector Reform in Nigeria’ (2013) 2(2) International Journal of Advancements in Research & Technology 11.

93 Ibid.

94 Chineme Okafor, ‘NERC: FG Has Made Adjustments to Promote Renewable Energy’ (30 August 2016) www.dunnlorenmerrifield.com/nerc-fg-has-made-adjustments-to-promote-renewable-energy accessed 12 May 2020.

95 However, NERC has made a Feed-in-Tariff Regulation 2016 for addressing the problem of financial sustainability in the on-grid renewable electricity sector. See International Energy Agency, ‘Nigeria Feed-in-Tariff for Renewable Energy Sourced Electricity’ (2017) www.iea.org/policiesandmeasures/pams/nigeria/name-154529-en.php accessed 15 May 2020.

96 EPSRA (n 22) s 62(1); see Musibau Adetunji Babatunde, ‘Keeping the Lights on in Nigeria: Is Power Sector Reform Sufficient’ (2012) 12 Journal of African Business 376, 377.

97 Ibid.

98 Anton Eberhard and others, Independent Power Projects in Sub-Saharan Africa: Lessons from Five Key Countries (World Bank 2016) 30.

99 Aladeitan and others (n 28) 11–15.

100 Kayode Oniemola (n 17) 84.

101 EPSRA (n 22) s 31(1) (d).

102 EPSRA (n 22) s 83(1); see OI Okoro and E Chikuru, ‘Power Sector Reforms in Nigeria: Opportunities and Challenges’ (2007) 18(3) Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 53.

103 Ibid, s 83(4); see David Hull, ‘The Proposed Privatisation of Electricity in Nigeria’ (2010) 5 http://gala.gre.ac.uk/4073/1/%28ITEM_4073%29_Hall_2010-11-E-Nigeria.pdf accessed 11 March 2020.

104 The National Council on Privatisation to initiate ‘successor private companies’ to take over electricity generation from the Nigerian National Grid after the initiation of the privatisation process in the sector. Subsequently, six private successor companies were established. These companies are Geregu Power PLC, Sapele Power PLC, Egbin Power PLC, Ughele Power PLC, Kainji Power PLC and Shiroro Power PLC. The mentioned companies can generate electrical power (including OGRE) and sell directly to eligible customers. See Ned Tony, The Last Dictator (Tradford Publishing 2012) 612; NERC, ‘Generation’ (2017) www.nercng.org/index.php/home/nesi/403-generation accessed 9 May 2020.

105 EPSRA (n 22) ss 57(2) (e) and 100; see also NERC (n 104); Hannah Kabir, ‘Low Carbon Power: The Nigerian Success Story’ (17 July 2016) www.nigeriaenergyfuture.org/renewables/24-low-carbon-power-the-nigeria-success-story accessed 6 May 2020.

106 EPSRA (n 22) s 62(1); see Jeffrey Delmon and Victoria Rigby Delmon (eds), International Project Finance and PPPs: A Legal Guide to Key Growth Markets (Kluwer Law International 2010) 73.

107 Ibid; see Raj Kulasingam, ‘Operational Overview of Captive Power in Nigeria’ (2015) www.financialnigeria.com/operational-overview-of-captive-power-in-nigeria-blog-168.html accessed 16 October 2019.

108 [2013] NERC/14/001.

109 Ibid.

110 The EPSRA (n 22) s 62(1); see Adetunji Babatunde (n 96) 376, 377.

111 NERC, ‘List of Licenses’ (2017) www.nercng.org/index.php/component/remository/Licensing/List-of-Licensees/?Itemid=591 accessed 9 May 2020.

112 Aisha Mahmud, ‘Nigerian Electricity Regulatory Commission Issues of Eligible Customers Benefits and Challenges’ (2014) 29 http://pubs.naruc.org/pub/5385078A-2354-D714-514A-EC00E5629E81 accessed 9 May 2020; see Yemi Oke, Nigerian Electricity Law and Regulation (Lawlords Pub 2013) 29, 190.

113 Ibid, s 62(1); see Adetunji Babatunde (n 96) 376, 377.

114 The NERC Regulation on Captive Power Generation 2010, s 2(1); see African–EU Renewable Energy Cooperation Programme, Captive Power in Nigeria: A Comprehensive Guide to Project Development (EU-EI 2016) 5.

115 Ibid; see Detail Solicitors, Nigerian Power Guide (Detail 2012) 4–5; A and P Foods Ltd v Exusia Power and Gas Ltd [2013] NERC/14/001.

116 Ibid, s 5.

117 The NERC Regulation on Captive Power Generation 2010 (n 114) s 5. The nature of an interconnected mini-grid undermines the reliability of the off-grid. As highlighted a major feature of off-grid which makes it very suitable in the Nigerian context is that it does not suffer from the downsides of the NNG. Feeding the mini-grid electricity to the national grid undermines the reliability of the OGRE.

118 Ibid.

119 The NERC Regulation on Captive Power Generation 2008, s 13(A).

120 The NERC Licensing and Operating Fees Regulation 2010, Schedule of Fees.

121 Akpan Uduak, ‘Electricity Access in Nigeria: Viability of Off-Grid Photovoltaic System’ (2013) AFRICOM 9/9, 12–15.

122 NERC Licensing and Operating Fees Regulation 2010, s 4, Sch B, para A.

123 Okanlawon (n 15).

124 GEF, ‘Promoting Low Carbon Energy Solutions in Nigeria Energy/Power Supply’ (2013) www.thegef.org/gef/project_detail?projID=5345 accessed 10 March 2020.

125 S Szabó and others, ‘Energy Solutions in Rural Africa: Mapping Electrification Costs of Distributed Solar and Diesel Generation versus Grid Extension’ (2011) 6 Environ. Res. Lett. 6034002.

126 Akpan Uduak, ‘Technology Options for Increasing Electricity Access in Areas with Low Electricity Access Rate in Nigeria’ (2015) 15(1) Socio- Economic Planning Sciences 1.

127 Nigeria is currently the largest market for off-grid low units diesel self-generators. See Roseline Okere, ‘Nigeria’s Power Generator Imports Hit N40.8 Billion in 2014’ https://guardian.ng/businessservices/nigerias-power-generator-imports-hit-n40-8-billion-in-2014 accessed 3 March 2020.

128 EPSRA (n 22) s 32(2) (b), 81, 92.

129 Nigerian Electricity Supply and Installation Standards 2015.

130 Ibid.

131 Ibid, para 7.

132 Ibid.

133 Ibid.

134 NEMSA Act 2015 (NG) s 1(1); Nigerian Electricity Services Management Authority (NEMSA), ‘Roles and Responsibilities’ (2018) www.nemsa.gov.ng/site/roles-and-responsibilities accessed 22 April 2020.

135 NEMSA Act 2015 (NG) s 6(p).

136 Aladeitan and others (n 28) 11–15.

137 Edeh Ejiro, ‘NEMSA is Unhealthy Rivalry – NERC’, Vanguard Newspaper www.vanguardngr.com/2015/06/nemsa-is-unhealthy-rivalry-nerc accessed 11 March 2020; see also Yusuf Abdullahi, ‘Electricity: One Industry, Two Regulators’ Daily Trust Newspaper (Abuja, 22 June 2015) www.dailytrust.com.ng/news/feature/electricity-one-industry-tworegulators/104676 accessed 12 March 2020.

138 Aladeitan and others (n 28) 12.

139 EPSRA (n 22) s 83(1).

140 EPSRA (n 22) s 83(1); see Ebele Stella Nwokoye and Amaka Metu, ‘Efficency of Nigeria’s Electricity Market: Emerging Issues, Prospects and Challenges’ (2014) 17 Nigerian Journal of Energy and Environment 17.

141 In 2012, NERC published an invitation for proposals from firms that will develop the processes and procedures that will enable them to set up the PCAF. NERC also decided that a target of 48 million USD (15 billion Naira) will be raised to initiate the set-up of the fund. By this invitation, the CSC Consulting Firm was contracted in 2014, and they submitted a report of their recommendations to the Power Consumer Assistance Fund in 2015. Their recommendations covered several issues that are pivotal to the operation of the PCAF including administrative and accounting procedures for the funding of the PCAF. However, the report from the CSC Consulting Firm has yet to crystallise into the actual establishment of the PCAF. See NERC, ‘Request for Proposal for the Power Consumer Assistance Fund’ (2012) www.nercng.org/index.php/library/documents/Terms-of-Reference/Request-for-Proposal-for-Power-Consumer-Assistance-Fund accessed 15 March 2020; CPCs Consultancy Firm, ‘Nigeria – Implementation of the Power Consumer Assistance Fund (12194)’ (2015) www.cpcstrans.com/en/projects/nigeria-implementation-power-consumer-assistance-fund2194 accessed 15 April 2020.

142 EPSRA (n 22) (emphasis added).

143 [2014] SC 20/2013.

144 Ibid; see also Central Bank of Nigeria & 6 others v Aite Okojie [2015] SC.127/2004.

145 NERC, ‘Electricity Prices are Rising’ (2015) www.nercng.org/nercdocs/electricity-prices-are-rising.pdf accessed 5 May 2020.

146 The provision is not surprising given that the EPSRA was made at the time when the national grid was the only mainstay of electricity in Nigeria. Eric Kehinde Ogunleye, Political Economy of Nigerian Power Sector Reform (2016) WIDER Working Paper 2016/9, 9.

147 Daily Trust Nigeria, ‘NERC and the Pitfalls of Mini-Grid Regulation’ (18 January 2017) www.nigeriaelectricityhub.com/2017/01/18/nerc-and-the-pitfalls-of-mini-grid-regulation accessed 12 May 2020.

148 CJ Diji, ‘A Critical Assessment of the Nigerian Rural Electrification Policy’ (2014) 2(1) IJASESI 123 124.

149 EPSRA (n 22) s 88 (11); see Felix Anyarouh, ‘The Challenges of the Nigerian Electric Power Sector Reform (1)’ (February 2013) www.vanguardngr.com/2013/02/the-challenges-of-the-nigerian-electric-power-sector-reform-1 accessed 5 May 2020.

150 REA, ‘REF Operational Guidelines 2017’ (October 2017) http://rea.gov.ng/rural-electrification-fund-]ref-operational-guidelines-2017-approved-october-2017 accessed 5 May 2020.

151 ESPRA (n 22) s 88(13) (c); see Micheal Dioha and Nnaemeka Emodi, ‘Investigating the Impacts of Energy Access Scenarios in the Nigerian Household Sector by 2030’ (2019) 8 Resources 127.

152 REA (n 150) 6.

153 Ibid, 21.

154 Ibid, 6.

155 Usman Mohammed, ‘Rural Solar Electrification In Nigeria: Renewable Energy Potentials and Distribution for Rural Development’ (2012) https://ases.conferenceservices.net/resources/252/2859/pdf/SOLAR2012_0232_full%20paper.pdf accessed 5 May 2020.

156 REF, ‘Results of the Mini-Grid Acceleration Scheme’ (2019) https://rea.gov.ng/rural-electrification-fund-results-mini-grid-acceleration-scheme accessed 5 May 2020.

157 Chibuzor Ebi, ‘Can Nigeria Meet Its Electricity Goal by 2030: We Find Out’ (2020) https://ng.boell.org/en/2019/10/11/can-nigeria-meet-its-electricity-goals-2030-we-found-out accessed 4 May 2020.

158 Ibid, 14.

159 Micheal A Dioha and Atul Kumar, ‘Rooftop Solar PV for Urban Residential Buildings of Nigeria: A Preliminary Attempt towards Potential Estimation’ (2018) 6(5) AIMS Energy 710, 734.

160 EPSRA (n 22) s 88(13) (emphasis added).

161 REA (n 150) 6. For a definition of the rural areas in Nigeria, see Enyi John Egbe, ‘Rural and Community Development in Nigeria: An Assessment’ (2014) 2(2) Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review 17; REEEP, ‘Nigeria: 2014’ (2014) www.reeep.org/programme-people accessed 15 May 2020.

162 NEMSA Act 2015 (NG) s 1(1).

163 Nigerian Electricity Services Management Authority (NEMSA), ‘Roles and Responsibilities’ (2018) www.nemsa.gov.ng/site/roles-and-responsibilities accessed 5 May 2020.

164 NEMSA Act (n 162) s 6(f).

165 Ibid, s 6(p).

166 This includes engineering services, technical support or maintenance services. See NEMSA 2015 (NG) s 6(h) and (i).

167 Ejiro (n 137); see also Abdullahi (n 137).

168 For commentaries on the effect of lack of coherent targets for renewable electricity, see Seetharaman and others, ‘Breaking Barriers in the Deployment of Renewable Energy’ (2019) 5 Helydon 6; for more commentary on the role of REF in promoting OGRE, see World Bank, ‘Project Appraisal Document on Proposed Credit’ (2018) 10 http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/367411530329645409/pdf/Nigeria-Electrification-PAD2524-06052018.pdf accessed 5 May 2020.

169 See Section 2.

170 Janet L Sawin, National Policy Instruments: Policy Lessons for the Advancement & Diffusion of Renewable Energy Technologies Around the World (World Bank 2004).

171 Seetharaman and others (n 168) 2.

172 Ibid.

173 UN-Energy/Africa, Energy for Sustainable Development: Policy Options for Africa 2011 cited in UNEP, Financing Renewable Energy in Developing Countries (UNEP 2012) 29.

174 Chinwa Ole (n 77) 137.

175 Mohammed Shaaban, ‘Renewable Energy Potentials in Nigeria: Meeting Rural Energy Needs’ (2014) 29; RSELR 72, 81; A Sambo, ‘Nigeria’s Long-Term Energy Demand Outlook to 2030’ (2011) 1(1) JEPRD 6.

176 Peter Kayode Oniemola, ‘Integrating Renewable Energy into Nigeria’s Energy Mix through the Law: Lessons from Germany’ (2011) 2 Renewable Energy L. & Pol’y Rev. 29, 37.

177 Ibid.

178 Innocent Okorie, ‘National Assembly to Amend Electricity Laws to Allow Communities Generate Power’ (2017) www.nta.ng/news/infrastructure/20170311-national-assembly-amend-electricitylaws accessed 5 May 2020.

179 Section 5.1.

180 Section 4.4.

181 Ebi (n 157).

182 For more commentary on SMART Target, see J Cust, Intermediate Indicators: Lessons for their Use in Measurement, Reporting and Effective Policy Implementation (2018) Electricity Policy Research Group (EPRG) www.climatestrategies.org/research/our-reports/category/40/92.html accessed 8 May 2020.

183 Marie Claire Brisbois, ‘Decentralised Energy, Decentralised Accountability? Lessons on How to Govern Decentralised Electricity Transitions from Multi-Level Natural Resource Governance’ (2020) 2 Global Transitions 16.

184 The Renewable Energy Law 2005 (CH) Art 7. For the regulation of renewable electricity in the Philippines, see S Yilmaz and V Venugopal, ‘Local Government Discretion and Accountability in the Philippines’ (2013) 25(2) JID 227–250.

185 Abubakar Saraki v Federal Republic of Nigeria [2015] S C 582.

186 NREEEP (n 74) 54.

187 Kayode Oladipo and others, ‘Power Sector Reforms in Nigeria: Challenges and Solutions’ (2018) https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/413/1/012037 accessed 5 May 2020.

188 Chris Ochayi, ‘NEMSA Bans Direct Electricity Supply from 33kV Feeders’ (2018) www.vanguardngr.com/2019/07/nemsa-bans-direct-electricity-supply-from-33kv-feeders accessed 8 May 2020.

189 United States Congress, Extension of Tenure of Government Control of Railroads (United States Congress 1919) 689.

190 International Off-Grid Renewable Energy Conference, Accelerating Off-Grid Renewable Energy: IOREC – Key Findings and Recommendations (IRENA 2015) 12.

191 Nelipher Moyo and Vera Songwe, ‘Removal of Fuel Subsidies in Nigeria: An Economic Necessity and a Political Dilemma’ www.brookings.edu/opinions/removal-of-feul-subsidies-in-Nigeria-An-Economic-Necessity-And-A-Political-Dilemma accessed 5 May 2020.

192 For instance, the Central Bank of Nigeria set up a 701 million USD (213 billion Nigerian Naira) Power Sector Intervention Fund in 2014 designated especially as a credit facility to encourage investment in the Nigerian National Grid. See Daily Post, ‘CBN, Banks Sign MOU on Power Sector Intervention Fund’ Daily Post Newspaper (Abuja, 22 December 2014).

193 Multi Year Tariff Order 2012 (NG) 49.

194 Ngozi Chinwa Ole and Akinbola Ruth, ‘Addressing the Capacity Deficiency in the Nigerian Off-Grid Renewable Electricity: The Place of the International Climate Change Regime’ (2019) 2 RUNLAWJ 35.

195 Gerald Ezirim and others, ‘The Political Economy of Nigeria’s Power Sector Reforms: Challenges and Prospects, 2005–2015’ (2016) 7(4) Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 446, 448.

196 Ibid; see Eric Kehinde Ogunleye, ‘Political Economy of Nigerian Power Sector Reform’ in Douglas Arent (ed), The Political Economy of Clean Energy Transitions (Oxford University Press 2017) 4.

197 Adeola Adenikinju, ‘Electric Infrastructure Failures in Nigeria: A Survey-Based Analysis of the Costs and Adjustment Responses’ (2003) 31 Energy Policy 1519.

198 CPCs Consultancy Firm (n 141).

199 REA, ‘Rural Electrification Agency Gets New Board and New Management’ (April 2017) www.channelstv.com/2017/04/20/rural-electrification-agency-gets-new-board-executive-management accessed 15 March 2020.

200 The Philippines case laws provide a legal basis for an order of mandatory injunction to compel an administrative body to perform a function stipulated by law. See Bel-Air Village Association Inc v Magsino [1981] 11803 (SC PH). Experiences in the Philippines power sector have shown that individuals and bodies often use the mandatory injunction to coerce government bodies in the sector to perform their legal functions as stipulated by the law. See National Power Corporation v Hon Abraham Vera [1989] G.R. No. 83558, 170 SCRA 721. However, where there is no express provision in law like the deadline in this context, the courts cannot intervene to award such a mandatory injunction against an administrative body. See Francisco Garcia v John C Sweeney [1904] G.R. No. 1693 (SC PH).

201 Daniel T Shedd, ‘Administrative Agencies and Claims of Unreasonable Delay: Analysis of Court Treatment’ (2013) 7 Congressional Research Service 5000 https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R43013.pdf accessed 2 February 2020. This paper contains exposition on administrative guidelines.

202 Ediri Ejoh, ‘Collapse of Nigeria Power Sector Imminent’ Vanguard Newspaper (Abuja, 30 January 2018) www.vanguardngr.com/2018/01/collapse-nigerias-power-sector-imminent-ibedc-cries accessed 20 February 2020.

203 British Broadcasting Corporation, ‘Nigeria na di Second Worst Country for Electricity’ (2018) www.bbc.com/pidgin/tori-42701121 accessed 20 February 2020; see also Wale Odunso, ‘Nigeria Ranks Second Worst Electricity Supply Nation in 2017’ (January 2018) http://dailypost.ng/2018/01/16/nigeria-ranks-second-worst-electricity-supply-nation-2017/ accessed 20 February 2020.

204 Ejoh (n 202).

205 Ibid.

206 Chineme Okafor, ‘Osinbajo: Soon Most Nigerians Will Not Need Power from National Grid’ (1 February 2017) www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2017/02/01/osinbajo-soon-most-nigerians-will-not-need-powerfrom-national-grid accessed 21 March 2020.