Social, emotional, and academic self-efficacy of adolescents in suburban areas: analysing interdependencies across socio-demographic factors

ABSTRACT

This cross-sectional study of adolescents between 10 and 18 years old aimed to measure self-efficacy in different nationalities, gender, sex, parent education, and work history among adolescents. Analysis of Moris’ questionnaire of self-efficacy dimensions supplemented with socio-demographic data indicated significant differences in emotional, academic, and social self-efficacy across the father and mother’s education (p<0.01), nationality, and history of working as a child laborer (p<0.01). Children of families with more education had higher self-efficacy. In contrast, adolescents with a history of working and other nationalities showed a lower rate of academic, social, and emotional self-efficacy. Findings suggest the importance of self-efficacy training strategies in adolescents, based on their demographic status.

KEYWORDS:

• Social self-efficacy
• emotional self-efficacy
• academic self-efficacy
• adolescents
• suburban

Introduction

During the transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescents undergo profound changes in their biological, emotional, social, cognitive, and intellectual development (Vera et al., 2004). A successful transition into adolescence depends largely on personal efficacy, a trait nurtured through past and recent mastery experiences. Therefore, it is critical for an individual to maintain confidence in their ability to influence their environment, a concept known as self-efficacy (Armum & Chellappan, 2016).

Self-efficacy, first defined by Bandura in 1977, refers to an individual’s confidence in their ability to engage in behaviours that could lead to desired outcomes, thereby achieving effective self-management (Bandura & Adams, 1977; Tsang et al., 2012). Social self-efficacy, a significant aspect of efficacy, profoundly impacts an individual’s social behaviours (Kotaman, 2008). Within a social context, perceived self-efficacy beliefs play an essential role in adolescents’ ability to interact successfully with their peers (Erozkan & Deniz, 2012). Adolescents with high social self-efficacy are thought to experience less social phobia, leading to better social functioning (Armum & Chellappan, 2016). Prior studies have shown that high levels of social efficacy beliefs promote positive social relationships among adolescents by enhancing their ability to navigate daily interactions in the classroom and minimizing the adverse effects of unsuccessful social interactions. These can be characterized by aggressive and submissive behaviours or by the dismissal or denial of others’ perspectives (Bandura, 1997). Social self-efficacy has been consistently associated with improved psychological and behavioural adjustment (Kim & Cicchetti, 2010).

Emotional self-efficacy also indirectly affects adolescents’ social behaviour. When analysed, emotional self-efficacy is considered a critical factor in maintaining good mental health and resilience, particularly in managing negative emotions during adolescence (Mesurado et al., 2018). Adolescents must cope with the biological changes associated with maturation, the formation of a successful identity across various domains, the entrance into new environments, the introduction to new people, and the pursuit of academic success, all at the same time (Çelikkaleli, 2014).

Another critical facet of efficacy for adolescents is academic efficacy. Academic self-efficacy represents a vital form of self-efficacy during an adolescent’s development and adjustment (Basili et al., 2020). Existing studies in the academic realm have demonstrated that perceived self-efficacy beliefs are significant contributors to students’ academic achievements and personal success (Koçak & CANLI, 2018). Specifically, academic self-efficacy beliefs influence perceptions of capabilities in scholastic subjects, as well as in self-regulatory processes conducive to learning (Fernandez-Rio et al., 2017).Bandura et al. (1996) posited that children’s perceptions of academic efficacy, social efficacy, and self-regulatory efficacy contribute to academic achievement and attainment, both directly and through the encouragement of loftier educational aspirations (Bandura et al., 1996). These outcomes are believed to occur because adolescents who harbour a stronger perception of self-efficacy are more likely to set goals and construct well-structured plans (Skinner et al., 1998).

Despite extensive research on self-efficacy, a gap persists, particularly concerning minority groups. Fan and Chen (2001) noted that most research to date has focused on majority groups, such as regular school-age children and adolescents. Conversely, few studies have been conducted on minority groups, including immigrant families and families with exceptional children and adolescents (Fan & Chen, 2001).

Wilson et al. (2015) recognized this gap and aimed to contribute to the body of literature on self-efficacy by exploring the differences in self-efficacy among women, underrepresented minorities, and majority adolescents in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines. They discovered disparities in self-efficacy among gender and ethnic groups in multiple STEM disciplines at various educational levels, both in teaching and research institutions. They underscored the need to modify the STEM classroom and culture to equalize opportunities among minority and majority students. They emphasized the importance of studying women and minority groups, asserting that such research can promote greater equality in our educational system (Wilson et al., 2015).

Supporting the above is a study by Strelnieks (2005), which concluded that the influence of self-efficacy on an individual’s success depends on external factors such as socioeconomic status (Strelnieks, 2005).

Due to population growth and swift urbanization in developing countries, slums around metropolises are rapidly emerging and expanding (Dehghani, 2019). Adolescents raised in marginal neighbourhoods characterized by poverty and deprivation are vulnerable and require more attention. The inherent dangers associated with economic deprivation, lack of adult protection, inadequate socialization, and absence of safeguards render them exceedingly vulnerable (Orben et al., 2020). Many of these children engage in the harmful use of psychoactive substances, which can increase the likelihood of accidents, violence, and unprotected sex leading to unwanted pregnancy (Bolland et al., 2007). A theoretically informed model was estimated wherein adolescent self-efficacy was elucidated in terms of interactions at home and schools. Several variables of the social backgrounds were included to examine their relative influences on the development of self-efficacy among the participants.

As urbanization in Isfahan province is increasing these days, and the number of adolescents in these areas is more than in others, the objective of the present study is to investigate the diverse dimensions of self-efficacy in Isfahan suburban adolescents and its correlation with socio-demographic characteristics.

Methods

This cross-sectional study was carried out in two suburbs of Isfahan city, selected randomly from six suburbs, and all schools, including three boys’ and seven girls’ high schools, participated in the study. The study was approved by the ethics committee of Isfahan University of Medical Sciences (IUMS) (ethics code: IR.MUI.RESEARCH.REC.1401.275). After coordination with the Isfahan Ministry of Education, a self-administered questionnaire was distributed via the Porsline application on the Shad network to all students in the selected schools. The completion of the questionnaire was entirely voluntary, and a consent form, which detailed the purpose of the study, was included on the first page of the questionnaire. Out of a total of 410 completed questionnaires, approximately 8% were excluded due to more than 20% of the questions being unanswered.

Questionnaires: The first section of the questionnaire assessed demographic characteristics including the student’s gender, grade, nationality, parents’ education, and history of child labour. To determine the academic, social, and emotional self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents, the questionnaire developed by Muris (2001) was employed (Muris, 2001). This questionnaire was suitable for the study as it was based on Bandura’s definition of Self-Efficacy and measures academic, social, and emotional self-efficacy. The questionnaire was translated into Persian and then back-translated by bilingual experts. The Content Validity Index (CVI) and ratio (CVR) were assessed by eight experts, comprising five health education and promotion faculty members and three psychologists (Table 1). The internal consistency coefficient, a measure of the scale’s reliability, was found to be 0.82 for the entire instrument, and 0.84, 0.82, and 0.77 for the academic self-efficacy, emotional self-efficacy, and social self-efficacy sub-scales, respectively.

Table 1. Number of questions and score range, mean, scale CVI and CVR range, and Cronbach’s alpha for each scale.

Variable	Number of questions	Minimum scores	Maximum scores	CVI	CVR	Mean	Std. Deviation	Cronbach’s alpha
Academic self-efficacy	8	12	40	0.98	0.96	31.08	5.72	.84
Social self-efficacy	6	11	30	0.96	0.80	23	4.21	.77
Emotional self-efficacy	8	10	40	0.96	0.89	26.82	6.234	.82

Academic Self – Efficacy Scale consists of eight items, with answers ranging from I’m completely sure to I’m not completely sure, using a5– point Likert – type scale (for example, ‘how confident are you in asking your teacher for help with homework?’ or ‘how well can you read a chapter of a book in preparation for an exam?’), six social self-efficacy items (for example, ‘how confidently can you express your opinion when your friends disagree?’ or ‘how well can you make friends with other children?’), and eight emotional self-efficacy items (for example, ‘how effectively can you cheer yourself up when something bad happens?’ or ‘how well can you control your emotions?’).

The questionnaire demonstrated internal consistency, with an alpha coefficient ranging from 0.85 to 0.88, indicating a satisfactory level of consistency across groups and populations. Sub-scores for academic, social, and emotional self-efficacy were calculated separately by summing the scores of the corresponding questions; higher scores indicated higher levels of self-efficacy. The same rule applied to each sub-score; a higher score indicated a higher level of self-efficacy in that area.

Data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistical analyses with the SPSS software version 23. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the demographic profiles of the participants and the reliability of the questionnaire, employing measures such as mean score, standard deviation, percentage, and frequency distribution. Inferential statistics, specifically an analysis of variance (ANOVA), were used to analyse differences in social and emotional self-efficacy across variables such as gender, nationality, parents’ education, and history of child labour. A post-hoc test was conducted to identify the specific groups that differed from each other.

Results

Table 1 illustrates the demographic distribution of the participants. A larger proportion of the sample was girls (78.2%), attributable to the higher number of girls’ high schools in these neighbourhoods and a higher response rate among girls. The majority of the students in this study were Iranian (84.7%), with the remaining 15.3% of Afghan nationality. Approximately 21.6% of these adolescents worked more than an hour a day alongside their studies, while 7.8% worked only during certain seasons to earn money (Table 2). Eleven questionnaires were discarded due to their incomplete nature, where more than 20% of the questions remained unanswered.

Table 2. Frequency distribution of participants according to their demographic characteristics.

Variable	Sub Group	Frequency	Valid Percent
Gender	girl	312	78.2
	boy	87	21.8
Nationality	Iranian	337	84.7
	Afghan	61	15.3
Employment Status	I did not work at all	251	62.9
	I used to work	31	7.8
	I work more than 1 hour every day	86	21.6
	I only work in certain seasons	31	7.8
Fathers Education	Illiterate	62	15.8
	Under diploma	203	51.7
	Diploma	97	24.7
	Above diploma	31	7.9
Mathers Education	Illiterate	70	17.5
	Under diploma	191	47.9
	Diploma	121	30.3
	Above diploma	15	3.8

In the current study, there were no significant differences in the mean scores of social, emotional, and academic self-efficacy between girls and boys (p >0.05). The mean scores for social (t = 3.208, p = 0.001) and academic self-efficacy (t = 2.322, p = 0.021) were significantly higher among Iranian students compared to Afghan students, although there was no difference between the two groups concerning emotional self-efficacy.

The lowest mean score for social self-efficacy was observed in adolescents who worked more than an hour a day (f = 3.1, p = 0.02). Higher levels of social self-efficacy were significantly associated with adolescents whose fathers (f = 4.04, p = 0.008) and mothers (f = 5.64, p = 0.001) had higher levels of education. The same trend was observed in students with high academic self-efficacy, where their fathers (f = 3.59, p = 0.01) and mothers (f = 4.28, p = 0.005) had significantly higher levels of education. Similarly, emotional self-efficacy was also significantly higher among students whose fathers (f = 6.25, p < 0.001) and mothers (f = 2.9, p = 0.03) had a higher level of education (Table 3).

Table 3. Comparison of self-efficacy dimensions in different subgroups based on nationality, educational level, adolescent work, and parents’ education.

Variable	Sub Group	Academic. Self. Efficacy				Social. Self. Efficacy				Emotional. Self. Efficacy
		mean	Std. d	t/f	Sig. (2-tailed)	mean	Std. d	t/f	Sig. (2-tailed)	mean	Std. d	t/f	Sig. (2-tailed)
Gender	Female	31.05	5.78	0.59	0.44	23.1	4.24	0.38	0.53	27.03	6.21	0.24	0.62
	Male	31.1	5.56			22.5	4.06			26.08	6.29
Nationality	Iranian	31.36	5.70	2.32	0.02*	23.29	4.14	3.20	P<0.001*	27.04	6.15	1.55	0.12
	Afghan	29.49	5.67			21.41	4.27			25.64	6.64
Grade	5th	31.29	5.71	6.152	P<0.001*	22.32	4.45	2.68	0.06	25.60	5.77	4.04	0.18
	6th	31.93	5.57			23.43	4.03			27.67	6.14
	7th	29.36	5.68			23.27	4.02			27.10	6.79
Employment Status	I did not work at all	31.58	5.46	1.73	0.16	23.44	4.07	3.108	0.02*	27.54	5.86	3.2	0.02*
	I used to work	30.00	6.37			23.20	3.92			25.33	7.16
	I work more than 1 hour a day	30.41	6.22			21.87	4.74			25.36	6.64
	I only work in certain seasons	29.96	5.41			22.53	3.45			26.83	6.14
Fathers Education	Illiterate	28.66	5.61	3.59	0.01*	22.1	4.18	4.04	P<0.001*	25.11	6.48	6.25	P<0.001*
	Under diploma	30.81	5.71			22.91	4.13			26.43	6.16
	Diploma	31.80	5.98			23.04	4.42			27.46	6.03
	Above diploma	33.43	4.65			25.39	3.35			30.92	4.90
Mathers Education	Illiterate	29.39	5.06	4.28	P<0.001*	21.86	3.96	5.64	P<0.001*	25.07	6.32	2.99	0.03*
	Under diploma	30.91	5.85			22.62	4.18			26.73	5.74
	Diploma	32.41	5.78			23.98	4.24			27.57	6.74
	Above diploma	30.26	4.74			25.13	3.75			29.23	6.09

*The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Discussion

‘Self-efficacy’ was first introduced by Bandura in 1977. He proposed that skill acquisition primarily occurs within a social group, where individuals learn from one another through observation, imitation, and modelling (3). Bandura highlighted the variances in self-efficacy across genders, ethnic groups, and minority groups, as it can aid in overcoming difficulties arising from inequities in their lives. This understanding could further contribute to promoting equality within our educational system.

Most adolescents residing in suburban areas surrounding large cities have migrated from smaller cities or impoverished countries. They are often compelled to live on the outskirts of these cities, leading to a deprivation of essential educational and nurturing facilities. Moreover, due to the prevalence of anti-social behaviour in these regions, inappropriate role models frequently influence the formation of high-risk behaviours among these adolescents. Therefore, enhancing adolescents’ comprehension of their abilities to achieve their goals and overcome obstacles can play a significant role in preventing risky behaviours amongst them. This study aimed to assess three dimensions of self-efficacy, namely, social, emotional, and academic self-efficacy, among adolescents living in the suburbs of Isfahan.

The results of this study offer unique insights into the levels of self-efficacy among adolescents living in suburban neighbourhoods in Isfahan, many of whom endure challenging circumstances such as poverty and a lack of educational and recreational facilities. According to the findings, the levels of the three dimensions of self-efficacy among these adolescents were approximately average. These results align with Mehsin’s 2006 study, which also showed a medium level of self-efficacy among most students at Yarmouk University (Mehsin, 2017). In contrast, a study conducted by Paspalata Armem and colleagues revealed that adolescents scored high in emotional and social self-efficacy (Armum & Chellappan, 2016).

Bandura (1994) stated that individuals with higher self-efficacy tend to construct and rehearse anticipatory scenarios. They visualize successful outcomes and are more likely to invest in and commit to an effective strategy for facing challenges (Bandura, 1994).

Neighbourhood conditions can shape adolescents’ opportunities for experiences of control, predictability, and safety. These conditions are associated with adolescents’ self-efficacy and, consequently, their internal problems, such as symptoms of depression and anxiety. Results from the Human Development project in Chicago Neighborhoods indicated that adolescents living in violent neighbourhoods tended to have lower self-efficacy beliefs, largely due to increased fear within their community. However, adolescents who relocated from violent, low collective efficacy neighbourhoods in Chicago to neighbourhoods outside the city reported increased self-efficacy, a connection explained by their school-related experiences. Through self-efficacy, these neighbourhood processes indirectly influenced adolescents’ internalizing problems. These results partially support a model linking neighbourhood conditions, self-perceptions, and emotions (Neighbourhood Processes, Self-Efficacy, and Adolescent Mental Health) (Dupéré et al., 2012).

Recent studies have revealed that there is no significant difference in social, academic, and emotional self-efficacy across gender among Iranian adolescents. This finding aligns with research conducted by Iskender, which also indicates no significant difference in self-efficacy in relation to gender (Iskender & Deniz, 2009). Numerous studies, however, have demonstrated a higher level of emotional competence in males compared to females (Çelikkaleli, 2014). A meta-analysis of 247 samples by Huang found males to exhibit marginally higher levels of academic self-efficacy overall than their female counterparts (Huang, 2012).

Contrary to these observations, Coleman (2003) reported that the social self-efficacy of female adolescents significantly surpassed that of their male peers (Coleman, 2003). This finding was echoed by Vera et al. (2004), who affirmed that the social self-efficacy of female students is notably higher than their male counterparts (Vera et al., 2004).

Further studies, such as the one conducted by Muris (2002), showed that female students have lower emotional self-efficacy than male students (Muris, 2002). Similarly, Shkullaku (2013) confirmed a significant difference in self-efficacy across gender (Shkullaku, 2013).

The contradictions presented in these findings may be attributed to recent cultural and social changes among the new generation of Iranian adolescents. This shift towards equality in education, entertainment, and developmental conditions between boys and girls could explain why social, academic, and emotional self-efficacy are not significantly different across genders. With equal opportunities to participate in academic and social life, both males and females can be exposed to similar environments regarding academic and social self-efficacy. They can experience parallel indirect influences, such as those from school and social surroundings, and receive similar encouragement from significant others to engage in academic and social activities. In essence, adolescents can interact with the primary sources of self-efficacy belief under similar circumstances and to similar extents. Consequently, this may lead adolescents to develop the same level of self-efficacy beliefs, irrespective of their gender.

However, as the number of boys’ schools in the study area was approximately half that of girls’ schools, leading to a sample size with less than half the number of boys, this result may not be representative of all adolescents in Iran.

The results indicate that the average score of social and emotional self-efficacy in working adolescents is lower than in non-working adolescents. This finding echoes the results of other studies, such as Kermanian’s research on children aged 12 to 18 (2021) (Kermanian et al., 2021), and Sajjadi Naini’s study (2015) (Naini & Kiamanesh, 2015). These cited studies reported that the academic self-efficacy of working adolescents was also lower than that of non-working adolescents. However, in the current study, the average score of academic self-efficacy showed no significant relationship with working adolescents. This discrepancy might be attributed to differences in sample size and the categorization of adolescents into working and non-working groups in the earlier studies.

In understanding this finding, one might refer to Bandura’s theory which suggests that self-efficacy develops based on vicarious experiences and functional situations. Working adolescents often find themselves in environments laden with stress and anxiety, facing negative experiences, emotional and social immaturity, and forced labour from a young age. This, in turn, can engender feelings of weakness and incapacity. This finding contradicts the views expressed by Fassa et al. (2010) on child labour and its potential impact on children’s self-efficacy. They argue that children who manage to combine work with education, and who enjoy good health, family, and community support, often develop a sense of self-worth (Fassa et al., 2010).

In this study, there was a significant relationship between all three dimensions of self-efficacy and the educational level of the parents. Theoretically, a parent’s level of education is expected to influence a child’s self-efficacy. Parents with higher levels of education tend to place more emphasis on a child’s self-management, which subsequently boosts the child’s self-confidence and motivation to attain higher levels of self-efficacy. While a person’s self-efficacy can influence their educational attainment, the latter can also impact a child’s self-efficacy as children observe their parents’ educational and career experiences (Bandura, 1989).

Parental involvement and education have long held the interest of practitioners and policymakers, and extensive research has suggested that positive parental involvement can yield beneficial outcomes for children. These include academic achievement, self-efficacy, and intrinsic motivation. As per Schunk and Miller (2002), family is a key factor in children’s development, including self-efficacy (Schunk & Miller, 2002). Moreover, Lv et al. (2018) asserted that parental involvement can enhance both academic and emotional functioning by ‘promoting children’s motivational development’ (Lv et al., 2018).

Conclusion

The recent study provides a platform for significant advancements into understanding the role and characteristics of social, emotional, and academic self-efficacy among adolescents living in suburban neighbourhoods in Isfahan. Given that the social, emotional, and academic self-efficacy of adolescents living in the suburbs varied depending on socio-demographic factors, it is imperative to develop effective self-efficacy strategies for adolescents and their parents residing in these areas. This should be done with a focus on nationality and child labour issues. Further studies are recommended to investigate the relationship between different domains of self-efficacy with life skills and high-risk behaviours in adolescents living in suburban areas.

Limitations

There was a significant disparity in the number of male and female adolescents due to the lack of boys’ schools in the study area in the present study. Therefore, future replications of this study could target a more diverse population to establish a robust relationship among the components analysed in this study. Lastly, the utilization of purposive sampling may limit the generalizability of the study’s findings to the broader population of adolescents in Iran.

Acknowledgments

The authors express their gratitude to the adolescents who participated in the study and generously shared their experiences. We also extend our thanks to Dr. Nazarian, head of the research group of the General Department of Education of Isfahan province, and Ms. Jaleh from the directorate of educational affairs, counselling, and care against social harms, for their consultation and assistance with the distribution of questionnaires in the aforementioned schools.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This article formed part of the dissertation titled “Investigating the dimensions of self-efficacy in teenage students from the marginal neighborhoods of Isfahan city in 2022” (no: 1401223). The article received support from Isfahan University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), although IUMS did not contribute to the study design, data collection, data analysis, interpretation of the findings, or the writing of the manuscript. Consent for publication is not applicable.

Notes on contributors

Faezeh Taheri

Faezeh Taheri, MS in health education and promotion at the department of health education and Promotion in Isfahan University of Medical Sciences in Iran. She is a student now, and she has a growing interest in research and education on youth development.

Mohammad Javad Tarrahi

Mohammad Javad Tarrahi, is an Associate Professor at the Department of Epidemiology, and Biostatistics. He is a head of Epidemiology and biostatistics in Isfahan University of Medical sciences in Isfahan in Iran, and also biostatistics consultant in this study.

Masuood Mahdavianfar

Masuood Mahdavianfar, is Ph.D. in Public Policy at the department of public policy in Isfahan Azad University (Khorasgan branch) in Iran. He is a director of cultural and social affairs of Isfahan governorate. He was also the cultural and social consultant of the present study.

Zohreh Fathian-Dastgerdi

Zohreh Fathian-Dastgerdi, is Assistant professor in Health Education and Promotion at department of Health Education & Promotion in Isfahan University of Medical sciences. She is interested in community-based research specially among adolescents.