Effectiveness of career guidance workshops on the career self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and career goals of adolescents: an intervention study

ABSTRACT

Studies consistently show the demand among adolescents for structured career guidance support programmes. This study evaluated the effectiveness of the career guidance workshop intervention by examining changes in career self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and career goals with 47 high school students in grades 10–12 (aged 16–18 years). Based on a five-step model including self-awareness, career exploration, school and career paths, real encounters, and decision-making, the career guidance workshop combined lectures, discussions, individual activities, and pair and group work. Data were collected through career self-efficacy, outcome expectation, and career goal questionnaires and analysed using a pre- and post-test design with a single intervention group. Results suggested a significant improvement in participants’ career self-efficacy and their career goals. Although the findings on outcome expectations were not significant, the findings also showed an increase after the intervention. Thus, career guidance intervention is considered a valuable basis to improve adolescents’ career decision-making skills.

KEYWORDS:

• Career guidance workshop
• career self-efficacy
• outcome expectations
• career goals
• adolescents

Introduction

The development of many facets of identity is inevitable during adolescence (Gushue et al., 2006). Professional exploration and career planning are crucial aspects of identity building (Super, 1963). Choosing a career becomes more complicated and challenging as one ages (Gati & Saka, 2001). Young people tend to respond to questions about their dream profession by symbolizing their utopian vision and extraordinary aspirations for adulthood (Howard & Walsh, 2011). As young adults grow older, their decisions regarding their career paths are more likely to be a dynamic interaction between their developmental stage and current contextual conditions (Howard & Walsh, 2011).

According to career theorists (Super, 1990), adolescence is a crucial developmental stage in investigating and developing future career goals. Youth career decision-making involves a process of comprehension, including determining career interests, exploring various potential career paths through planning and guidance (Porfeli & Lee, 2012), and making important career decisions during the senior year of high school, such as deciding whether to graduate from high school or pursue employment instead of continuing education (McWhirter et al., 2000). Furthermore, Savickas (2012), through the Life Design model, has made an important contribution to the understanding of the career decision-making process with a holistic approach. This model (Savickas, 2012) emphasizes the growth of personal resources of individuals to better explore the complexity of career choices, in a dynamic path. By emphasizing personal resources in the sense of self-awareness, adaptability and resilience in the face of career challenges, the model empowers individuals to make informed and meaningful decisions, ultimately leading to greater satisfaction and success in their career paths. This approach to career development has become a valuable foundation for career professionals and individuals in achieving a fulfilling and purposeful working life.

One widely used theoretical model for understanding career development and professional behaviour is social cognitive career theory (SCCT) (Lent et al., 1994). Notably, SCCT draws on Bandura’s (1986) social cognition theory, highlighting the complex interplay between personal agency and environmental factors. Similar to Bandura’s (1986) general theory, it assumes that individuals not only possess a degree of autonomy or self-direction but also have to deal with a range of external factors, such as environmental facilitators and obstacles, that can either reinforce or diminish personal agency and, in some cases, completely override it. According to Lent et al. (1994), self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, and career goals are three cognitive-personal characteristics that interact to a certain extent, thereby supporting professional development agencies.

Self-efficacy beliefs ‘are people’s assessments of their ability to plan and carry out the actions necessary to achieve specific goals or desired outcomes’ (Bandura, 1986, p. 391). These beliefs play a crucial role in Bandura’s (1986) theory by influencing one’s thoughts and actions. Furthermore, SCCT (Lent et al., 1994) expands Bandura’s (1986) self-efficacy theory by applying the latter to career guidance and choice. Career self-efficacy encompasses ‘career-related behaviors, educational and occupational choices, and the ability to perform and persist in implementing those choices’ (Betz & Hackett, 1997, p. 383).

Notably, SCCT suggests that people with strong self-efficacy beliefs are more inclined to pursue challenging career objectives and show perseverance in the face of challenges (Lent et al., 1994). According to SCCT, self-efficacy encourages positive outcome expectations and both directly and indirectly promote career goals through interests, and so on (Lent et al., 2002). Additionally, these individuals are more prone to participate in activities that enhance their career growth, such as searching for career guidance, networking, and skill building (Hackett & Lent, 1992) Moreover, individuals with clear career goals and a sense of purpose are more prone to attaining career accomplishments, thereby experiencing greater career satisfaction (Lent et al., 1994).

Outcome expectancies refer to the anticipated results or outcomes that a person associates with carrying out specific behaviours (Lent et al., 1994). In career decision-making, this refers to one’s beliefs about the potential long-term consequences of success in certain educational or professional behaviours (Betz & Voyten, 1997). The expected career outcomes of adolescents are the anticipated achievements in their career paths. They may include job satisfaction and security, financial rewards, promotional opportunities, and personal growth and development (Lent et al., 1994). Those with a clear understanding of their career-related outcome expectations are more likely to make decisions, thereby achieving their desired career objectives (Lent et al., 1994). Based on SCCT, individuals avoid activities if they anticipate unfavourable outcomes, whereas if they envisage the contrary, they engage in activities that provide such outcomes (Patton et al., 2004).

Career goals refer to individuals’ long-term career aspirations and desires. According to SCCT, people with solid self-efficacy tend to pursue challenging career goals and persevere despite obstacles (Lent et al., 1994). They participate in actions that increase their career development, such as seeking career-related information, networking, and skill building (Hackett & Lent, 1992). Moreover, individuals with clear career goals and a sense of purpose are more likely to succeed in their careers and experience greater career satisfaction (Lent et al., 1994).

Career goals refer to individuals’ long-term aspirations and desires concerning their careers. According to SCCT, individuals with high self-efficacy beliefs are more prone to seek and continue to pursue challenging career objectives despite any obstacles they may encounter (Lent et al., 1994). They involve themselves in endeavours that promote their career development, such as seeking career-related information, networking, and skill building (Hackett & Lent, 1992). Moreover, individuals with clear career goals and a sense of purpose are more likely to succeed and experience greater career satisfaction (Lent et al., 1994). Wendling and Sagas (2020) found a positive correlation between self-efficacy and career goals. This indicates that having greater confidence in making career decisions improves the ability to set career goals and create career plans. These results are supported by a study conducted by Monteiro et al. (2021), whose results suggest that self-efficacy positively predicts career goals and contributes to a clearer definition of career objectives.

Over the years, numerous studies have been conducted in Kosovo to explore career planning and decision-making. Studies conducted on Kosovar adolescents have highlighted cognitive constructs and social support as significant factors in career decision-making (Jemini-Gashi, 2013; Jemini-Gashi et al., 2019). Career self-efficacy, career goals, and outcome expectations are among the most important variables in teenagers’ career guidance (Jemini-Gashi, 2014). Adolescents who have reported high levels of these constructs have shown higher levels of security regarding their career decision-making (Jemini-Gashi, 2014).

There is a certain level of curiosity regarding the connection between social support and vocational decision-making. According to SCCT, an indirect relationship exists between the two, with professional self-efficacy acting as a moderator or mediator. Jemini-Gashi et al. (2019) attempted to understand the role of career self-efficacy in mediating the relationship between social support and adolescents’ hesitancy regarding their career choices. They found a link between career indecision and a lack of parental, academic, or peer support, which was indirectly facilitated by career self-efficacy. The study in question, in line with other studies, emphasizes the importance of social support in career self-efficacy, expected results, and career goals. In addition, young people have continuously emphasized the need for professional support regarding their career orientation (Jemini-Gashi, 2021a, 2021b; Jemini-Gashi & Kadriu, 2022; Jemini-Gashi et al., 2019).

The role of career guidance interventions

The adolescent years are crucial for career growth because, during this period, individuals ruminate and choose a path to their future. Left alone to navigate complicated job options, teenagers may struggle to make decisions that match their interests, skills, and values. Career counselling interventions can be extremely beneficial in helping them identify and pursue career aspirations. Previous studies have shown that career counselling interventions are necessary to help adolescents make informed decisions about their future careers (Jemini-Gashi, 2013; Jemini-Gashi et al., 2019). However, career interventions should foster professional identity development, which essentially involves helping young people discover who they are and what types of work can complement their self-image (Porfeli & Lee, 2012). Adolescents need assistance with career exploration behaviours, workplace information, and skills related to making career decisions.

Adolescents’ career development and decision-making skills have been improved through interventions such as career counselling (Jemini-Gashi et al., 2019), choice interventions (Koivisto et al., 2011), training (Koen et al., 2012), education modules (Eryilmaz & Kara, 2020), and peer counselling programmes (Wong et al., 2016). The adolescents who participated in these interventions showed positive outcomes and benefits. Several studies have found a positive relationship between adolescent well-being and engagement in career preparation (Falco et al., 2010; Mau et al., 2021; Shoffner et al., 2015). Falco et al. (2010) examined the effectiveness of a 9-week school counsellor-led curricular intervention designed for high school students aimed at improving beliefs of competence (self-efficacy) and students’ attitudes towards learning mathematics. It also aimed to address the ‘confidence gap’ that appeared between boys and girls in mathematics education in secondary school. The intervention had a significant impact on all students’ mathematics performance.

Another study conducted by Falco and Summers (2019) evaluated whether a career group intervention that included four sources of self-efficacy and addressed perceived career barriers was effective in improving career decision self-efficacy and science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) self-efficacy for adolescent girls. The results indicated that the intervention had a positive impact on the participants’ career decision-making and STEM self-efficacy.

Emotional stability, positive affect, life satisfaction, and effective functioning have all been identified as indicators of well-being that are positively related to this important developmental task (Celen-Demirtas et al., 2015; Kim et al., 2016; Konstam et al., 2015; Stringer et al., 2012). Moreover, according to Skorikov (2007), career confidence, planning, and a lack of career ambiguity are predictors of well-being, including social adjustment, emotional stability, life satisfaction, and self-actualization. Conversely, anxiety and depression were found to have a detrimental effect on professional readiness.

Over the years, numerous studies have evaluated the effectiveness of interventions to guide adolescents towards their career paths. A notable example is the meta-analysis of Whiston et al. (2017), which aims to assess the overall impact of career choice interventions on informed decision-making. The study found that these interventions were generally effective in increasing career decision-making outcomes, with an average effect size of 0.352. This average effect size indicated that individuals who received such interventions scored one-third of a standard deviation better than those who did not. Notably, the largest effect size was observed for career decision-making self-efficacy, with a mean of 0.452, while another significant mean effect size was found for psychoeducational interventions.

The impact of a career counselling intervention on self-efficacy and career decision-making difficulty among high school students was also noted in urban China (Gu et al., 2020). The findings indicated that the intervention effectively reduced students’ difficulties in choosing a career; however, its impact on career self-efficacy was uncertain. Interventions through courses focused on career-related education can help high school students increase their level of career self-efficacy when making important decisions.

By combining a college campus visit with an online career guidance programme, Glessner et al. (2017) examined whether engagement in a digital community-based intervention programme, including components of self-efficacy theory, improved high school students’ career self-efficacy. The results showed that students who participated in the programme reported significantly higher levels of self-efficacy in making career decisions than those who did not participate.

Interventions related to career orientation and decision-making processes have proven very useful for young people in other studies. Overall, the research confirms that the use of interventions to guide young people in their careers improves their career self-efficacy (Fouad et al., 2009; Reese & Miller, 2006) and outcome expectations (Betz & Voyten, 1997).

Based on the reviewed literature, recommendations, and effectiveness of various interventions, this study aimed to assess the efficacy of a career guidance workshop focused on Kosovar adolescents and emphasize its significance in fostering positive career development outcomes for young people. The intervention sought to enhance adolescents’ abilities to make professional decisions, increase their career self-efficacy, and provide pertinent knowledge about job alternatives. This study is important because adolescence is a critical period for career development, and providing appropriate career guidance during this stage can have significant long-term effects on career trajectories and well-being. However, career guidance services in Kosovo are limited, and many adolescents struggle with career indecision and lack information regarding career options. This study aims to bridge this gap by evaluating the efficiency of career guidance workshops in improving adolescents’ career decision-making skills.

In Kosovo, career guidance workshops have been developed mainly for secondary school students, based on the cognitive constructs of SCCT and labour market needs. The intervention aimed to enhance the adolescents’ career decision-making skills by providing them with information on different career options, helping them improve their self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations, and encouraging them to set career goals. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention in enhancing adolescents’ career decision-making skills and knowledge of job alternatives. Data were obtained from the participants through pre- and post-intervention questionnaires that assessed their career self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and career goals, along with other variables.

The following research questions and hypotheses were proposed based on the aforementioned research goals and aims.

Research questions

1. To what extent does participating in the career guidance workshop intervention affect the self-efficacy of Kosovar adolescents in making career decisions?

2. How does the career guidance workshop intervention impact the outcome expectations of Kosovar adolescents in their career choices?

3. Does the career guidance workshop intervention impact the career goals of Kosovar adolescents in exploring various career options?

Hypotheses

The hypotheses are stated as follows:

Hypothesis 1.

Participation in career guidance workshop interventions leads to an important improvement in the career self-efficacy of Kosovar adolescents.

Hypothesis 2.

The career guidance workshop intervention has a positive impact on the outcome expectations of Kosovar adolescents regarding their career choices.

Hypothesis 3.

The career guidance workshop intervention has a positive impact on Kosovar adolescents’ career goals in exploring various career options.

Methodology

Sample and procedure

With the support of school psychologists, the students were invited to participate in a workshop on career planning and guidance based on a five-step model. As this study aimed to analyse the impact of a career development workshop series on student participants, 47 senior high school students from grades 10 to 12 were involved in the entire process, including baseline, workshop, and endline assessments. Most of the respondents (N = 40) were 17 (85.1%), 4 (8.5%) were 16, and 3 (6.4%) were 18 years old, with an average age of M = 16.97, SD = 0.87. Regarding the gender, 55.3% (N = 26) of the respondents were females, whilst, 44.7% (N = 21) were males. The students were from 4 high schools, with 10–12 students from each school included in the study. The pre- and post-tests and workshop were conducted in classrooms in suitable and familiar settings. After obtaining approval from the Municipal Directorate of Education, school directors, and school psychologists, the students were informed of the purpose of the study and how it would be conducted two weeks before its implementation. All the participants provided prior approval for the study. For minors, authorization was obtained from their parents or guardians. After the pre-test measurements, the data were analysed and workshops on career planning and guidance were conducted based on the aforementioned five-step model: self-awareness, career exploration, pathways to career, real-world experiences, and decision-making, using a combination of lectures, discussions, individual activities, and paired and group work. The workshop lasted for two days, after which the students were given a week to carry out activities based on the corresponding steps of the model and create a personal portfolio based on their career planning, decision-making, and action plans for the future. After a week, the results were presented and discussed, and post-test scores were measured to examine career self-efficacy, expectations, and goals.

Measurements

Demographic data

The first section focused on information about demographic characteristics such as age, sex, and place of residence.

Career self-efficacy

The second section comprised career self-efficacy questions based on a questionnaire developed by Betz and Taylor (1994) that examined individuals’ career self-efficacy. There were 25 questions provided information about learners’ self-confidence in their capacity to engage in educational and professional information gathering with the aim of planning and decision-making. The responses were recorded on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree). Higher scores indicate a greater degree of career self-efficacy. The Albanian version of the career self-efficacy scale showed a high level of internal reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha of .89 (pre-test) and .93 (post-test).

Outcome expectations and career goals

The third section of the questionnaire, based on Betz and Voyten’s (1997) design, comprised questions on outcome expectations and career goals. It contained 14 questions. The initial nine questions evaluated learners’ assessments of career-related behaviours and expectations of the results, while the remaining five measured their career choice goals. The responses were recorded on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree). Using Cronbach’s alpha, the reliability of the Albanian version of the questionnaire combined with both factors was .89 (pre-test) and .85 (post-test). When analysing separate factors, for outcome expectations, the Cronbach’s alpha of pre-test was .83 and .80 of post-test, whereas, for career goals, the Cronbach’s alpha of pre-test was .83 and .81 for post-test.

Research design

Career self-efficacy, expected outcomes, and career goals were analysed before and after the intervention. Initially, the participants were given questionnaires to assess the variables of interest, and the collected data were subsequently analysed. Following this measurement, a career planning and orientation workshop was conducted using the five-step model. Subsequently, a post-test was administered to the same group of participants after 10 days, and the data were analysed. The study was considered longitudinal in terms of temporal dimension because the measurements were repeated.

This was a before-and-after, single-group intervention study. The pre-test allowed for a baseline measurement of the variables of interest before the intervention, whereas the post-test measured the changes in the variables after the intervention. This design is useful for comparing measurements before and after the test within the study group and for evaluating the effectiveness of the intervention (Creswell, 2014; Shadish et al., 2002; Trochim & Donnelly, 2008).

The career guidance intervention

Overall, the study design demonstrated validity following the aim of the measurement, using pre- and post-tests with a single intervention group to evaluate the effectiveness of the career planning and orientation workshop based on the five-step model of career self-efficacy, expected outcomes, and goals.

The career guidance intervention comprised a series of workshops held at different high schools in Kosovo. The interactive workshops included group discussions, individual activities, and informational sessions led by career guidance professionals. These were built based on a five-step career planning and decision-making process, which included the following:

Step 1. Self-awareness

This module aims to provide youngsters with the knowledge and ability to start their career-planning process. Self-awareness is the first step towards a fulfilling career, and the goal of this module is to assist youngsters in identifying their talents, limitations, interests, and values. The participants obtained more profound insights into their abilities and potential career options. The workshop participants were introduced to various tasks and exercises that aided in their self-reflection and self-awareness. These exercises were designed to assist adolescents in assessing their professional objectives, self-efficacy, and projected outcomes. The workshops included discussions on personality traits, values, and career maturity. Through this programme, the participants learned how to evaluate their skills and link them with potential job opportunities. Additionally, their knowledge of the labour market and demand skills was improved. The ultimate goal of this module was to equip adolescents with the knowledge to make wise future-related decisions and to place themselves in positions where they could achieve job success.

Step 2. Knowledge of professions

This module aims to equip adolescents with the relevant information and tools they require for research and to comprehend various occupations that would be a good fit according to their personalities and interests. The objective was to provide students with the knowledge and resources needed to choose their future occupations wisely. Career exploration workshops cover various subjects such as the characteristics and prerequisites of several occupational categories. Students are taught the qualities and requirements of realistic, research-based, artistic, social, entrepreneurial, and conventional vocations. In addition, they learned how to obtain information on numerous professions, categories, and features. The students obtained a deeper understanding of the nature and choice of occupations through the workshops. They also gained knowledge of the abilities and characteristics required for various occupations. They were prompted to consider their own advantages and disadvantages to determine which career best suited them. By the end of the module, the students had developed the ability to research career information that matched their personalities and interests. They intended to equip themselves with the knowledge and skills needed to successfully navigate their future professional pathways.

Step 3. School and career paths

This module aimed to assist students in choosing the most effective educational route to achieve their career aspirations. The students were instructed to choose the most appropriate educational path based on their immediate surroundings and resources, after developing self-awareness and learning about different professions and career choices. They were urged to consider various choices, including investigating careers and educational courses accessible in nearby institutions. Career experts guided them through career counselling and assisted them in the planning process. The module stressed the importance of continuing education, lifetime learning, and the capacity to change any prior professional decisions. By the end of the module, the students had the knowledge and tools needed to choose their professional paths wisely and establish themselves for success. The aim was to provide students with the tools to navigate the educational system and successfully achieve their career objectives.

Step 4. Real encounters

The students were informed of the value of meeting with professionals in their intended field of work as they reviewed the results of the first three phases in a five-step plan. These meetings could be in the form of a professional or business person visiting the school or a student visit where they could ask organized and pre-planned questions. Extended internships during breaks were also encouraged to allow the students to learn about daily activities and experience real tasks relevant to their chosen or intended profession. It was anticipated that when students were provided with information about their intended professions, it would provide them with a clear picture of the reality of such professions, including how to start and advance their careers, opportunities offered, and difficulties encountered during career development.

Step 5. The final decision

The previous four steps were intended to teach the participants the value of making decisions and developing action plans for their future careers. The students received assistance in identifying their intended professions and preparing for higher education or employment. Although there were no in-person interactions with experts, the students were informed of the advantages of doing so to provide a clear picture of what it was like to work in each industry. Additionally, the significance of higher education and its advantages for both individuals and society were discussed with the students. They learned that completing at least a basic level of university coursework boosted their chances of landing jobs and earning more money. The societal benefits of higher education include an enhanced quality of life and health as a result of choosing healthier lifestyles. To prepare for job applications, the students were taught how to create curriculum vitae and cover letters. Moreover, they learned how to promote themselves, their accomplishments, and their long-term objectives during the job interviews. All professional roles, not just those that require university education, demand these skills.In conclusion, the five-step career planning and decision-making process provides a structured approach for equipping adolescents with the necessary tools and skills to embark on career planning. The career guidance intervention consisted of interactive workshops designed to promote self-awareness, professional knowledge, school and career paths, meetings with professionals, and a final decision-making process. This intervention aimed to empower students to make informed decisions regarding their career paths and to set them up for success. Therefore, the goals of this study were to not only evaluate the effectiveness of career guidance workshops in improving adolescents’ career decision-making skills but also examine changes in their career self-efficacy beliefs, goals, and outcome expectations as a result of the intervention.

Data analysis

Statistical analysis, calculations, and data visualization were performed using R software to evaluate the changes in career self-efficacy, expected outcomes, and goals between the two testing phases (R Core Team, 2021). In line with the hypotheses, R-paired t-test functions were used to evaluate the differences between the different phases of pre- and post-testing. A power analysis conducted with the R package ‘pwrss’ (Bulus, 2023) suggests that a sample size of 34 participants is sufficient to achieve a power level of .80 with a type I error rate of .05 that can detect a .5 difference in pre-post means with a standard deviation of 1 (both in the pre- and the post-tests). The present study has included 47 participants to ensure adequate power for the paired-samples t-test analysis.

Results

The results from the paired t-test presented in the Table 1, showed an average self-efficacy score of 3.9 for career in the first phase and 4.11 in the second, indicating that the average values of the two periods were different, with an average difference of −.21. (t = −3.84, df = 46, p < .001). Thus, the findings support Hypothesis 1, indicating a significant improvement in career self-efficacy among adolescents in Kosovo after the career guidance intervention. In summary, the results indicate a significant difference between the baseline and endline phases, with a notable improvement in the self-evaluation of career self-efficacy during the second phase, that is, the post-test.

Table 1. Paired t-test results for all variables.

Names	Mean pre-test	Mean post-test	t-value	95% confidence interval	p-value	Mean difference
Self-efficacy	3.90	4.11	−3.85	−.32 – −.1	.00	−.21
Expectations	3.97	4.06	−1.26	−.22 – .05	.21	−.09
Goals	4.04	4.22	−2.25	−.35 – −.02	.03	−.18

As Table 1 shows, the study’s findings from the paired t-test yield mean values for expected outcomes in the first and second phases were 3.97 and 4.06, respectively with a mean difference of −.09 (t = −1.26, df = 46, p-value > .05). Although the expected outcome mean was higher in the first phase, indicating an intervention effect, the difference between the pre- and post-test measurements was insignificant. Thus, the findings do not support Hypothesis 2.

The results of the paired t-test (Table 1) supported Hypothesis 3, as there was a statistically significant increase in average career goals from the first phase (mean = 4.04) to the second phase (mean = 4.22) with a mean difference of −.18 (t = −2.25, df = 46, and p < .05). This implied that the participants showed a statistically significant increase in their career goals from the initial to the subsequent study phase.

Discussion

This study contributes to the understanding of the importance of career interventions. Specifically, this study assessed the efficacy of a career guidance workshop for Kosovar adolescents. The intervention drew upon SCCT (Lent et al., 1994) and the five-step career planning and decision-making process, whereby the students could acquire knowledge about career self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and career goals through a series of workshops. Based on these results, Hypothesis 1 was supported. The adolescents who participated in the intervention showed a significant increase in post-test career self-efficacy scores compared to pre-test scores. These results expand upon previous research, indicating that comparable interventions enhance self-efficacy among high school students (Chiesa et al., 2016; Gu et al., 2020; Koivisto et al., 2011; Ulas-Kilic et al., 2020). This outcome is significant because the intervention goal of encouraging career planning by boosting self-efficacy in career decision-making was achieved. These results demonstrate the significance of career self-efficacy in adolescent career planning and decision-making success and suggest the potential advantages of implementing similar interventions in educational and career development settings.

However, Hypothesis 2 was not supported. Despite slight variations in the mean scores, the results were not significant. These results are consistent with those of Chronister and McWhirter (2006). The outcome expectation scores remained stable over time without any noticeable changes. Furthermore, a meta-analysis study (Whiston et al., 2017) reviewed career interventions over the years and found only three studies that included career outcome expectations; a small effect size was evident in these studies (.18).

The findings revealed no statistically significant differences between the baseline and end scores for outcome expectations. According to Whiston et al. (2017), one possible explanation could be that the students who participated in the intervention already had high expectations of their outcomes. Thus, they may have been motivated to perform well, regardless of whether they had received the intervention. Consequently, this may not have affected their outcome expectations as much as anticipated, leading to insignificant results. Therefore, it is important to consider such factors when interpreting study results and designing future interventions because outcome expectations, as a cognitive variable, play a crucial role in career development. It influences an individual’s motivation and goal-setting behaviour and can further support adolescents in achieving their career goals and aspirations.

The findings from this study support Hypothesis 3, which states that interventions heighten participants’ career goals. The paired-sample t-test results indicated that career goal scores significantly increased from pre- to post-test. Thus, the differences between the pre- and post-test measurements for career goals were statistically significant, showing a significant increase between the different phases. Therefore, the career guidance workshop intervention had a positive impact, as evidenced by the significant increase in the participants’ career goals. These results are consistent with those of Chronister and McWrighter (2006). Based on these findings and SCCT, individuals with firm self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations are inclined to actively pursue ambitious career objectives and persevere when facing challenges (Lent et al., 1994). Overall, the significant increase in career goal scores after the intervention highlighted the importance of considering career goals in adolescents’ career development interventions. Individuals are more likely to be motivated to pursue their desired careers and persist in the face of obstacles if they set clear and attainable goals, eventually resulting in higher career success and satisfaction.

In summary, the findings suggest that the intervention discussed in this study may enhance career decision-making, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, career goals, and career planning. Notably, SCCT, which contends that people with strong self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations are more inclined to pursue demanding professional goals and persevere despite setbacks, is supported by these findings. The increase in career goal scores from pre- to post-test supports the notion that the intervention is helpful in inspiring participants to develop career goals. However, it had no significant impact on outcome expectations. Overall, because of the importance of these elements in young people’s career development, this study emphasizes the value of interventions that target the enhancement of career self-efficacy and goal-setting in adolescents. However, further studies are required to ascertain the long-term impact of such interventions and explore strategies to increase their effectiveness.

Limitations

The research and interventions were conducted according to rigorous and systematic criteria and standards. Although the results, based on a before-and-after design with an intervention group, suggest that the intervention described in this study may improve the career decision-making process, several potential limitations exist. First, the lack of a control group is a significant limitation. Conducting a study with a control group would enhance the reliability and validity of the results and effects of the intervention. Hence, further experimental and quasi-experimental studies are required to confirm these findings.

Although the power analysis proves that the sample of 47 participants is sufficient to ensure adequate power for the paired-samples t-test analysis, the sample size of the students in the present study is relatively limited. A larger number of students would reflect more realistically on the findings in both phases of the study, thus making the effect of the intervention more convincing. Third, two-day interviews may not be sufficient to assess changes in attitudes and behaviours. Longer interventions would ensure changes in attitudes and behaviours towards career self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and career goals. Moreover, the lack of follow-up can also be considered among the limitations of the study.

Despite these constraints, this study can be regarded as the first step towards integrating effective career interventions into the Kosovo educational system. Further research should investigate the potential of scaling the intervention to include a larger group of students and evaluate its impact on academic performance and long-term career outcomes. Additionally, future studies should explore strategies to overcome potential barriers to participation in the intervention, such as a lack of interest or time constraints. This study highlights the potential benefits of career interventions for adolescents and provides important insights into the development of effective programmes that support young people’s career development.

Implications and future directions

This study has important practical implications and suggests future directions for understanding the effects of career interventions on adolescents. The results show that interventions through career guidance workshops have a positive impact on increasing career self-efficacy and goals among adolescents in Kosovo. This indicates that educational institutions and society can use these interventions to assist adolescents in making informed career choices and achieving their goals. Although rather insignificant, the outcome expectations showed an increase in post-test scores. Future studies should investigate other interventions that can be used to improve the expectations of adolescents.

The practical implications of this study include the use of career guidance interventions in schools and career development environments to encourage increased self-efficacy and career goals among adolescents as crucial factors in career decision-making. Moreover, these interventions can help increase the chances of success in career planning and decision-making. Research in this area must continue to gain a deeper understanding of the impact mechanisms of career guidance interventions and future improvements. These results support SCCT and the five-step process of career planning and decision-making. Additionally, a broader intervention programme that includes all school students and considers the potential influence of other variables, such as family and community support, can be developed.

Overall, this study contributes to the expansion of knowledge on the impact of career guidance interventions, demonstrating their potential to enhance self-efficacy and career goals among adolescents in Kosovo.

Institutional review board statement

This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee on Research, Faculty of Philosophy.

Informed consent statement

Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

The datasets generated and/or analysed in the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Additional information

Funding

The authors (s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Notes on contributors

Liridona Jemini Gashi

Liridona Jemini-Gashi, Ph.D., is an associate professor in the Department of Psychology, University of Pristina. She has conducted her doctoral studies in the branch of psychology, in the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Tirana, with the dissertation: “Factors which impact on the Kosovar adolescents’ decision-making for profession choice.” Dr. Jemini-Gashi has continuously studied the career decision-making process among young Kosovars and the factors that affect this process. The studies she has conducted so far have included several factors, specifying personality traits, career maturity, career self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and career goals, as well as the contextual factors, with a focus on family, school and peer support, mental health, and so on.

Dashamir Bërxulli

Dashamir Bërxulli, Ph.D., is a professor of psychology in the Department of Psychology (University of Prishtina). He is also a licensed clinical psychologist, psychotherapist, researcher, and trainer. He holds a doctoral degree from the Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany. He is currently the Dean of the Faculty of Philosophy at the University of Prishtina. Dr. Bërxulli has been conducting active research and publishing activity in the field of personality, gender issues, intimate partner violence, career guidance, mental health, and so on.

Jon Konjufca

Jon Konjufca, a Ph.D. candidate, is a clinical psychologist who is studying personality disorders and electronic assessments at the University of Basel, Switzerland. He is studying different topics such as advanced research methods, measurements using cognitive tasks, and electronic assessment, which has bestowed him with an understanding of both the methods of data analysis and experimental design. MA Konjufca is currently working as a teaching assistant in the Department of Psychology at the University of Pristina “Hasan Prishtina.” He is committed to long-term involvement in the study of the psychosocial determinants of mental health among adolescents.

Laura Cakolli

Laura Cakolli is about to conclude her MA studies in the Department of Psychology at the University of Prishtina. Over the years, she has been engaged in various projects of the Department of Psychology. Recently, her engagement has included assisting and facilitating career guidance workshops.