Traditional masculinity, peer pressure, and sensation seeking as correlates of risky behaviours

ABSTRACT

The relationship between traditional masculinity, peer pressure, sensation seeking and undergraduate students’ involvement in risky behaviours was examined using correlational research design. Results indicated higher levels of each predictor variable correlated significantly and positively with undergraduate students’ involvement in risk behaviours. Conformity to traditional masculinity contributed significantly to the variance in involvement in risky behaviours in the positive direction, and male undergraduate students involved more in risky behaviours than females. However, contributions of peer pressure and sensation seeking were non-significant. Traditional masculinities should be challenged and replaced by alternative positive masculinities in a country’s effort to fight against STIs, unplanned pregnancies, and abuse of alcohol and other substances.

KEYWORDS:

• Emerging adults
• peer pressure
• risky behaviours
• sensation seeking
• traditional masculinity
• undergraduate students

Introduction

Involvement in risky behaviours refers to engagement in behaviours such as consuming alcohol, smoking cigarette, using shisha and/or other substances, and having sex without using condom that might have long-term negative consequences. Many researchers have attempted to detect what factors lead to involvement in risky behaviours among undergraduate students. Amongst other factors, conformity to traditional masculine norms, peer pressure, and sensation seeking were found to be the most consistent factors leading undergraduate students to involve in risky behaviours.

Conformity to traditional masculinity refers to the degree of an individual’s identification with attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours associated with traditional masculinity. Traditional masculinity ideology defines the norms or standard patterns of behaviour associated with traditional masculinity. Those who endorse these norms are likely to conform to them. Mathewson (2009) reviewed research literature on masculinity and men’s health. Most of these literatures indicate that hegemonic construction of masculinity perpetuates an image of men as strong, resilient and invulnerable, which discourages health positive behaviours. In addition, research findings revealed gender role socialization encourages men to put their health at risk. For instance, Mahalik et al. (2007) discovered that the man who constructs masculinity as being a risk-taker may engage in risky behaviours, such as smoking, excessive drinking, or refusing to wear a seatbelt; the man who constructs masculinity as putting work ahead of all other responsibilities may not make time for self-care; and the man who constructs masculinity as being self-reliant may never seek help from health care professionals.

Research findings also revealed that men who embrace traditional constructions of masculinity as defined by attributes like strength, dominance, aggression and sexual prowess have less willingness to consult medical and mental health care providers (Addis & Mihalik, 2003); engage in partner abuse or sexual coercion (Stephens & Phillips, 2003); engage in male-on-male violence (Kimmel, 2007); have earlier sex and more partners (Courtenay, 2000); are less likely to use condoms (Bowleg, 2004); and believe that pregnancy validates manhood (Marston & King, 2006). According to Courtenay (2003), these risk-taking behaviours undermine not only men’s health, who engage in health negative behaviours, but also the health and well-being of women and girls. This means, men are simultaneously made vulnerable by rigid social norms of masculinity, while making women and girls vulnerable.

Another factor influencing undergraduate students’ involvement in risky behaviours is peer pressure. A negative peer influence is described as where peers who are the same age group could cause their friends to do something odd or act in different ways. It is the influence exerted by a peer group encouraging the youth to change their attitudes, values or behaviours. Undergraduate students are more likely to be influenced and involved in risky behaviours due to their greater propensity to conform to peers’ demands. Peer pressure eventually becomes harder to resist at this stage such that the opinions of peers often matter more than those of parents (Santor et al., 2000; Zinzow et al., 2009).

Some studies have shown anti-social peer influence to predict such problem behaviours as delinquency, marijuana use, alcohol abuse, and risky sexual activity during emerging adulthood. Gardner and Steinberg (2005) showed that peer pressure influenced risk-taking among 18–22 year olds more than among older participants. Bradley and Wildman (2002) found effects of antisocial peer pressure on emerging adult recklessness, but not on (socially approved) risk behaviours. In that study, peer pressure effects were evident after controlling for demographic variables and sensation seeking. Evidence of peer influence from field research is strongest for alcohol and substance use. For example, in a study of 208 emerging adults, Teese and Bradley (2008) found weaker effects of peer pressure on reckless sexual and driving behaviours than on reckless substance use. Likewise, Gardner and Steinberg (2005) reported that emerging adults have a great likelihood to be influenced and involved in different types of socially proscribed activities such as tobacco use, alcohol use, and engagement in risky sexual behaviours for the sake of peer conformity. Boys were more influenced by their peer group and engaged in smoking than girls due to peer pressure (Steinberg, 2008).

A third, key factor associated with university students’ involvement in risky behaviours is sensation seeking. Sensation seeking is characterized by the need for varied, novel and complex sensations and experiences, and the willingness to take physical and social risks for the sake of such experience (Zuckerman, 2008). Sensation seekers enjoy intense and unpredictable experiences, which may place them in danger. The susceptibility to risk-taking among emerging adults is may be due to higher inclinations to seek excitement and relatively unformed capacities for self-control that are typical in this stage of development (Prinstein et al., 2003).

It is well established in the literature that high sensation seeking emerging adults are at particularly high risk of use and abuse of alcohol and other substances (Comeau et al., 2001; Romer et al., 2010), increases in the quantity of alcohol consumed at any given drinking episode and negative outcomes experienced from drinking (Cyders et al., 2009) as well as inadequate sleep, depression, injuries, violent behaviour and smoking (Qidwai et al., 2010). Boys having sensation seeking personality trait are likely to involve in risk-taking behaviours as compared to girls (Green & Krackmar, 2000). Studies of emerging adults have also shown a positive association between sensation seeking and sexual risk-taking. For example, in a study of African American females ages 15–21, higher sensation seeking predicted lower recent condom use, lower consistent condom use, more lifetime sex partners, lower partner sexual communication, diminished self-efficacy to refuse sex, and higher fear of condom negotiation (Voisin et al., 2013). Similar findings were reported in a study of white youths in that higher sensation seeking was also associated with lower condom use and having sex without contraception (Bailey et al., 2006).

In patriarchal societies like Ethiopia, cultural gender socialization that strats from early age lead children to conform to traditional masculine norms depicted in the literature. Once endorsed traditional masculinity someone is expected to conform to the norms. On the otherhand, as discussed in the above paragraphs the influences of peer pressure and sensation seeking peak during emerging adulthood. Although it is not the objective of this study, peer pressure and sensation seeking appear mediating the relationship between traditional masculinity and emerging adults’ involvement in risky behaviours. Though studies showing such associations are scant, Hatzenbuehler’s (2009) psychological mediation framework attempted to explain that gender socialization factors, including masculine norms, influence one’s susceptibility to peer pressure and as to why individuals select specific peer groups. Rooted in positive reinforcement theory, Meir et al. (2007) also revealed that individuals who adhere to masculine norms might seek out certain types of peers and be more influenced by peer groups where they fail to consider the negative effects of involving in risky behaviours like being alcoholic.

Most of the studies on involvement in risky behaviours have been conducted on school-going adolescents and less emphasis have been placed on undergraduate university students. Research revealed that by virtue of their age undergraduate university students are more likely to engage in risky behaviours (Statistics, 2011). In relation to this view, Arnett (2000) pointed out that social and economic changes took place in the past decades. As a result of these changes, the developmental period during which risk-taking peaks has shifted from adolescence to young adults, or what he calls ‘emerging adults’ – the late teens and the twenties, with a focus on ages 18–25. It has been shown that this age group is more likely than younger or older samples to engage in risky and reckless behaviours, for instance, being the period of reckless sexual activities and sexually transmitted diseases, reckless driving, and highest drug use (Arnett, 2005; Johnston et al., 2003; National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research, 2005).

The author of the present article conducted a study entitled ‘Masculinity construction, health risk behaviours and help-seeking attitudes of undergraduate students’ for partial fulfilment of the Doctor of Philosophy in 2015. The article by Adugna and Belay (2007) was extracted from the qualitative segment of this dissertation. The article was intended to provide new information regarding the meanings ascribed to masculinities among undergraduate university students in Ethiopia. The result of the study revealed that most participants of the study, particularly young men endorsed traditional masculinity depicted in the literature including a display of risky behaviours, bravery, self-reliance, controlling females, inexpressiveness, recording some achievements in life, etc. Regarding the result of the study reported by Adugna (2015), although both masculinity variables (conformity to masculine norms and gender role conflict) were positively and significantly correlated with health risk behaviours, only conformity to masculine norms was the strongest contributor for involvement in health risk behaviours among undergraduate students. In this study, based on the author`s keen interest to further investigate other factors, peer pressure and sensation seeking which were implied in the literature as strongest predictors of involvement in risky behaviours were considered along with previously studied variable by the researcher in his dissertation (conformity to traditional masculinity).

Many research findings in Ethiopia revealed that significant proportion of undergraduate university students engaged in risky sexual behaviours (Gurmesa et al., 2012; Negash, 2005; Tariku et al., 2011; Zelalem et al., 2013; Tariku, Lemessa, & Nega, 2012). In most of these studies, various factors, such as age (18–24 years), gender (being male), lack of parental control, religiosity, substance use, and peer pressure were associated with risky sexual behaviours. Likewise, Likawunt and Mulugeta (2012) discovered higher level of substance use and risky sexual behaviours among Hosanna health science college students. Moreover, Wakgari and Azazh (2011) reported that the magnitude of substance use among undergraduate medical students was considerable. Wakgari and Aklilu further noted that alcohol consumption or khat use has been significantly associated with cigarette smoking; being male was strongly associated with substance abuse.

In Ethiopia, although the aforementioned factors were found to be the immediate causes for undergraduate university students’ involvements in various risky behaviours, there is not a lot of research available to determine which factor is the strongest predictor to the presence of high risk behaviours among emerging adults. Thus, the purpose of this study is to investigate which factor (traditional masculinity, peer pressure, and sensation seeking) is the strongest contributor to the presence of involvement in risky behaviours among a sample of undergraduate students in Wollega University. To this effect, the study attempted to provide answers for the following basic research questions.

1. What is the prevalence of involvement in risky behaviours among undergraduate students in Wollega University?

2. What is the relationship between conformity to traditional masculinity, peer pressure, sensation seeking and undergraduate students’ involvement in risky behaviours?

3. Do male and female undergraduate students differ in their involvement in risky behaviours?

Meanings ascribed to masculinities in Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, there is little understanding and a lack of enough evidence on the social construction of male gender norms and what it means to be a ‘real’ man for people living in different cultures of the country. However, from the existing literature one can easily understand that most cultural practices foster traditional masculinity, as young men were encouraged to construct their gender identity in opposition to femininity and expected to be aggressive, brave, competitive, dominant, self-reliant, and willing to take risks, which are typical traits that signify traditional/hegemonic masculinity. In line with this view, Adugna and Belay (2007) reported that most youth associated ‘being a man’ with involving in risky practices (such as smoking, using substance, drinking, and engaging in multiple sexual partners), fearlessness, courageousness, bravery, and recording some achievements in life.

Similarly, other existing literatures in Ethiopia revealed several core concepts embedded in what it means to be a ‘real’ man, including more sexual experiences than women and sexual experience with multiple partners is acceptable and normal for men (Miz-Hasab Research Center, 2004); men are not only praised for their sexual competence/experience but also their sexual desire is often believed to be uncontrollable and even girls believe that a young man who does not ask her to have sex with him or is sexually inexperienced is not a ‘real’ man (Getenet, 2006); to be a real man, young men are expected to provide financial support to their families although economic opportunities are rare, making it difficult to assert their manhood – lack of employment opportunities and inability to fulfil their traditional gender roles as providers may lead young men to turn to chewing khat and drinking alcohol, putting them at risk for unprotected sex to boost their masculinity and self-esteem (ibid).

Apart from its association with risk-taking behaviours, masculinity is viewed in terms of virginity among the Borana Oromo. In this regard, Dejene and Jatani (2023) reported that the Borana custom provides a unique definition of masculinity and femininity. It gives young anatomically females a masculine gender from birth until their wedding day. The main purpose is to maintain the girls’ premarital virginity. Unmarried girls are males and, by default, virgins. To the contrary, anatomically, baby boys in the dabballee Gadaa grade are born feminine and remain so for a maximum of 8 years. Moreover, masculinity is associated with walking barefoot among the Fogera community. Walking barefoot is a common practice in the Fogera community. According to Fikadu and Abeje (2022) walking barefoot among the Fogera community is associated with social meanings such as masculinity and strength and much less with poor economic conditions.

Generally, since most cultures in Ethiopia tend to ostracize and ridicule those that do not live up to the socially constructed masculine ideal, men and boys often perform and propagate traditional male norms, which might put their health and that of their counters at risk. In Ethiopia, it seems that the conversations and interventions to promote gender equality have focused heavily on women. In this regard, Billene (2018) argue that if by definition, gender, refers to the socialized roles and responsibilities of men and women that are assumed within families, societies, cultures and expectations held about the characteristics, aptitudes and behaviours of women and men, then it should always keep in mind to challenge women’s socially constructed subordination vis-à-vis challenging men’s socially constructed domination.

Research methods

Research design

This study employed correlational research design in order to examine the relationship between traditional masculinity, peer pressure, sensation seeking and undergraduate students’ involvement in risky behaviours.

Study site

This study was conducted in the three campuses of Wollega University (Nekemte, Shambu and Gimbi).

Participants

Participants of the study were undergraduate students in the age range between 18 and 25 years, enrolled in one of the higher learning institutions in Ethiopia - Wollega University in the year 2021/22. Although the majority of masculinity and involvement in risky behaviours researches focused on engaging only male participants, based on Koon’s (2013) suggestions, stating that any individual can exhibit traditional masculine role norms, behaviours and attitudes, both male and female undergraduate students were included in this study.

Sample size and sampling techniques

The study considered all the three campuses of Wollega University: two colleges and one institute from the main campus (College of Business and Economics, College of Engineering and Technology, and Institute of Language Studies and Journalism), one faculty from Shambu campus (Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resource), and one faculty from Gimbi campus (Faculty of Social Science) were randomly selected.

The total population of undergraduate students was obtained from the registrar office. Accordingly, about 12,000 students were enrolled in the three campuses of the university. Sample size for this study was decided with the following formula used for behavioural science studies (Naing et al., 2006).

$\mathrm{n}={\mathrm{Z}}^2\mathrm{P}(1-\mathrm{P}){\mathrm{d}}^2$

Where,

n = sample size,

Z = Z statistic for a level of confidence of 95% (1.96.),

P = expected prevalence or proportion (in proportion of one; if 50%, P = .5), and

d = precision (in proportion of one; if 5%, d = .05).

Accordingly, the sample size for the desired precision was 384. The total number of undergraduate students that took part in this study from each institute, college, and faculty were determined using proportional method (Table 1).

Table 1. Wallaga University Undergraduate students’ population and samples in 2021/22.

Campus	College/Institute	Department	Samples Selected
Nekemte	College of Engineering and Technology	Computer Science	23
		Survey Engineering	19
		Mechanical Engineering	18
		CoTM	22
	College of Business and Economics	Economics	22
		Management	17
		Accounting	22
	Institute of Language Studies and Journalism	Afan Oromo	28
		English	20
Shambu	Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resource	Animal science	26
		Food Science	18
		Plant Science	29
		Soil Science	17
Gimbi	Faculty of Social Science	Civics	27
		Social Work	23
		History	19
		Governance	10
Total			360

Data gathering instruments

Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory-46 (CMNI-46; Parent & Moradi, 2009) is slightly modified and used. The CMNI-46 is a 46-item instrument with a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (strongly disagree) to 3 (strongly agree), with high scores indicating high degrees of conformity to traditional masculine norms (Parent & Moradi, 2009). Thus, in this study the CMNI-46 is a 40-item instrument with the omission of heterosexual self-presentation subscale that measures aversion to the prospect of being gay or being thought of as gay (e.g. ‘I would be furious if someone thought I was gay’). This subscale is omitted due to its cultural inappropriateness in Ethiopia; because it is uncommon for a male to be perceived as a gay by being exhibiting an affectionate behaviour with other male. Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory had an internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) of .77.

Peer Pressure Scale (PPS, Santor et al., 2000) was used to assess the level of peer pressure one has experienced. The peer pressure scale consists of 10 items with a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (strongly disagree) to 3 (strongly agree). The Peer Pressure Scale had an internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) of .75.

Brief Sensation Seeking Scale (BSSS, Hoyle et al., 2002) was used to measure the level of sensation seeking in youths. The Brief Sensation Seeking Scale consists of 8 items with a 5-level Likert type scale: ‘strongly disagree’, ‘disagree’, ‘undecided’, ‘agree’, ‘strongly agree’. The Brief Sensation Seeking Scale had an internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) of .88.

Health Risk Behaviours scale (HRBQ) was used to measure the level of undergraduate students’ involvement in substance use and less responsible sexual behaviours. Items were generated after a thorough review of both the literature and measures related to involvement in risky behaviours. This part of the questionnaire consists 7 items with a five-point Likert-type scale. The Health Risk Behaviours Scale had an internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) of .80.

Method of data analysis

After the necessary data was collected and coded, statistical tests were performed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) for Window, version 23.0. Statistical methods including descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation, standard multiple linear regression, and independent sample t-test were used in the analysis.

Descriptive statistics was done to investigate the extent of prevalence of involvement in risky behaviours during the last 3 months (smoking cigarette, consuming alcohol, chewing khat, using shisha and/or other substances, had sex, and condom use). Pearson correlation was computed to determine the relationship between conformity to masculinity, peer pressure, sensation seeking and undergraduate students’ involvement in risky behaviours. Standard multiple linear regression was conducted to examine whether the dependent variable (involvement in risky behaviours) is regressed on independent variables (conformity to traditional masculinity, peer pressure, and sensation seeking) or not. In this study, although six risky behaviours were investigated as stated above, standard multiple linear regression was competed by putting together all the six risky behaviours as a single dependent variable. Independent sample t-test was used to determine whether male and female undergraduate students differ in their involvement in risky behaviours.

Results

This section is devoted to the presentation and interpretation of the data based on the responses of 360 undergradute students.

As can be seen from Table 2, the participants’ age ranged from 18 to 25 years, in which the majorities (79.2%) of them were in the twenties (20–25 years), while the remaining 20.8% were late teens (18–19 years). Regarding the sex of the participants, 63.9% of them were male and 36.1% were female. In terms of year at university, three batches took part in the study from the three campuses of Wollaga university. The majority of the participants were drawn from 3^rd year (58.9), while 35.6% and 5.6% of them were from 2^nd year and 4^th year, respectively. First year students did not take part in the study as they were not admitted to the university; most of 4^th year and all 5^th year and above students were also not part of the study since they were not in the campus for practical attachments during the time of data collection.

Table 2. Socio-demographic characteristics of the participants (undergraduate students).

Socio-Demographic Variables		N	%
Age	18–19 years	75	20.8
	20–25 years	285	79.2
Sex	Male	230	63.9
	Female	130	36.1
Year at university	2nd year	128	35.6
	3rd year	212	58.9
	4th year	20	5.6
Religiosity	At least twice in a week	211	58.6
	Once in a week	81	22.5
	Once in a month	46	12.8
	Once in a year	22	6.1
Family income	<1000	108	30.0
	1000–5000	148	41.1
	5000–10000	76	21.1
	>10000	28	7.8
Place grown up	Urban	188	52.2
	Rural	130	36.1
	Semi-urban	42	11.7

With regard to the frequency of attending religious institutions, 58.6% of the participants reported that they were frequently attending religious institutions (at least twice a week), while 22.5% and 12.8% reported that they were attending religious institutions moderately (once a week) and seldom (once a month), respectively. The remaining 6.1% reported that they were attending religious institution once in a year. Concerning parents’ average monthly income, the majority of the respondents (41.1%) estimated their family’s monthly income to be 1000–5000 birr, while 7.8% of them estimated > 10,001 birr. In terms of place grown up, 52.2% of the participants reported that they were grown up in urban, while the remaining 36.1% and 11.7% reported rural and semi-urban, respectively.

As shown in Table 3, significant number of undergraduate students – 92 (25.6%), 140 (38.9%), 58 (16.1%), 28 (7.8%) were involved in risky behaviours, such as smoking cigarette, consuming alcohol, chewing Khat, and using shisha and/or other substances during the last 3 months, respectively. Moreover, 153 (42.5%) undergraduate students reported that they had sex during the last 3 months. Out of 153 students, 35 (22.87%) students reported that they have never used condom while having sex during the last 3 months.

Table 3. Prevalence of involvement in risky behaviours among undergraduate students of Wollega University.

Involvement in high risk behaviours during the last 3 months	Response	F	%
Smoked cigarette	No	268	74.4
	Yes	92	25.6
	Total	360	100.0
Consumed alcohol	No	220	61.1
	Yes	140	38.9
	Total	360	100.0
Chewed khat	No	302	83.9
	Yes	58	16.1
	Total	360	100.0
Used shisha and/or other substances	No	332	92.2
	Yes	28	7.8
	Total	360	100.0
Had sex	No	207	57.5
	Yes	153	42.5
	Total	360	100.0
Condom use	Sometimes	118	77.1
	I have never used condom	35	22.87
	Total	153	100.0

From the outset, it was expected that higher levels of conformity to traditional masculinity, peer pressure and sensation seeking would relate to higher levels of risky behaviours. As can be seen from Table 4, conformity to traditional masculinity, peer pressure, and sensation seeking correlated significantly and positively with involvement in risky behaviours (r = .403; p < .05), (r = .250; p < .05) and (r = .259; p < .05), respectively. This means that higher levels of each of the predictor variables are associated with higher level of undergraduate students’ engagement in risky behaviours.

Table 4. Matrix of pearson correlations between predictor variables and criterion variable (N = 360).

Variables	CTM	PP	SS	HRB
CTM	1
PP	.457**	1
SS	.616**	.359**	1
HRB	.403**	.250**	.259**	1

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

CTM, conformity to traditional masculinity; PP, Peer pressure; SS, Sensation seeking; HRB, health risk behaviours.

Results of multiple regression analysis

Standard multiple linear regression was conducted to determine to what extent each of the independent variable (conformity to traditional masculinity, peer pressure, and sensation seeking) predict undergraduate students’ involvement in risky behaviours. The result of regression analysis revealed that the predictor variables (conformity to traditional masculinity, peer pressure, and sensation seeking), when combined together accounted for more than 16.8% of the total variance observed in involvement in risky behaviours (R² = .168, F (3, 356) = 24.013, p < .05). This shows that the predictor variables jointly significantly predicted the dependent variable. Variables other than these that were not considered in this study accounted for 83.2% of the variability in involvement in risky behaviours among emerging adults. This result indicated the presence of other important unmeasured variables affecting emerging adults’ involvement in various risky behaviours.

Beta weights of each of the predictor variables were examined to determine which of the three independent variables contributed uniquely to the variance explained in involvement in risky behaviours (see Table 5). Conformity to traditional masculinity contributed significantly to the variance in involvement in risky behaviours in the positive direction (t = 5.583; P < .05), while the contribution of peer pressure and sensation seeking were non-significant (t = 1.520; P > .05& t = .103; P > .05, respectively)

Table 5. Relative contributions of the predictor variables on involvement in risky behaviours.

Model	B	SE B	β	t	P
Conformity to traditional masculinity	.078	.014	.362	5.583	.000
Peer pressure	.069	.046	.083	1.520	.129
Sensation seeking	.004	.037	.006	.103	.918

As can be seen from Table 6, the result of independent sample t-test revealed that there is statistically significant difference in mean scores for males (M = 11.65) and females (M = 9.68), t (358) = 3.635, P = .000< .05). This implies that undergraduate students’ involvement in risky behaviours was varying on account of their sex; males were found to involve more in risky behaviours than females.

Table 6. Independent sample t-test result on sex differences in involvement in risky behaviours.

Variable	Category	N	Mean	SD	df	t	Sig. (2-tailed)
Risky behaviour	Male	230	11.65	4.99	358	3.635	.000
	Female	130	9.68	4.85

Significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Discussion

The specific objectives of this study were to determine the extent of prevalence of involvement in risky behaviours among undergraduate students; to examine the relationship between traditional masculinity, peer pressure, sensation seeking and undergraduate students’ involvement in risky behaviours; and to find out whether male and female undergraduate students differ in their involvement in risky behaviours. Thus, the results of the present study are discussed in detail in line with these specific objectives hereunder.

The finding of the present study revealed that significant numbers of undrgradute students were involved in risky behaviours, such as smoking cigarette, consuming alcohol, chewing Khat, using shisha and/or other substances, and having sex without condom during the last 3 months. This high prevalence of involvement in risky behaviours found in this study is in line with the results of most previous studies conducted in Ethiopia which indicated that significant proportion of undergraduate students engaged in risky sexual behaviours (Gurmesa et al., 2012; Negash, 2005; Zelalem et al., 2013; Tariku, Lemessa, & Nega, 2012; Tariku et al., 2011); higher level of substance use and risky sexual behaviours (Likawunt & Mulugeta, 2012); and alcohol consumption and khat use (Wakgari & Azazh, 2011). Altough the reason why substantial number of undergraduate students engaged in risky behaviours is not the subject of the present study, Andualem et al. (2014) reported that university students engaged in substance and alcohol consumptions for different reasons, including to increase academic performances, to get personal pleasure, to stay awake and due to peer pressure. Also involving in various risky behaviours particularly among the male participants was may be associated with proving manhood/endorsing the traditional masculine role norms implied in the introduction section of this manuscript.

Pearson correlation was computed to determine the relationship between traditional masculinity, peer pressure, sensation seeking and emerging adults’ involvement in risky behaviours. The result revealed that higher levels of each of the predictor variables (conformity to traditional masculinity, peer pressure, and sensation seeking) were correlated significantly and positively with undergraduate students’ involvement in risky behaviours, indicating that as the value of each of the predictor variable increased, reports of involvement in risky behaviours increased.

The present finding is consistent with most previous researches examining the relationship between conformity to traditional masculinity and involvement in risky behaviours. For instance (Adugna, 2015; Mahalik et al., 2003; Liu & Iwanmoto, 2007), found out positive relationship between conformity to traditional masculinity and using substances and binge drinking. This clearly shows that undergraduate students who endorsed traditional masculinity are more vulnerable to involve in various risk-taking behaviours which might put their health conditions at risk.

Peer pressure was another dimension in emerging adults’ involvement in risky behaviours that was investigated in this research. The present study demonstrated a significant positive association between peer pressure and emerging adults’ involvement in risky behaviours. The finding of the present study is in line with the earlier findings (Eldeleklioglu, 2007; Siraj et al., 2021) that reported positive relationship between peer pressure and involvement in risky behaviours. This result is also consistent with the findings by Gardner and Steinberg (2005) who reported that emerging adults have a great likelihood to be influenced and involved in different types of socially proscribed activities such as tobacco use, alcohol use, and engagement in risky sexual behaviours for the sake of peer conformity. One reason for consistent findings might be that those emerging adults who strongly perceived the behaviours and activities of the peers of their own age were most likely to participate in risky activities. They justified their own behaviours by using their perception of their peers’ participation in risky behaviours (Brown, 2004). This is inline with what has been well established in the literature that emerging adults’ behaviour is more influenced by peer groups than parents.

Another variable that was found to be positively and significantly associated with undergraduate students’ involvement in risky behaviours was sensation seeking. Higher level of sensation seeking was related to higher level of engagement in risky behaviours. Consistent with the present finding, it is well established in the literature that high sensation seeking emerging adults are at high risk of use and abuse of alcohol and other substances (Comeau et al., 2001; Romer et al., 2010; Siraj et al., 2021), increases in the quantity of alcohol students consumed at any given drinking episode. This finding is also similar to studies of emerging adults that have shown a positive association between sensation seeking and sexual risk-taking. For example, in a study of African American females ages 15–21, higher sensation seeking predicted lower recent condom use, lower consistent condom use, more lifetime sex partners, lower partner sexual communication, diminished self-efficacy to refuse sex, and higher fear of condom negotiation (Voisin et al., 2013).

Standard multiple regression analyses was conducted to examine to what extent the independent variables predict undergraduate students’ involvement in risky behaviours. The result revealed that the overall contribution of the predictor variables (16.8%) to involvement in risky behaviours was significant, F = 24.013, p < .05.Beta weights of each of the predictor variables were examined to determine which of the three independent variables contributed uniquely to the variance explained in involvement in risky behaviours; traditional masculinity contributed significantly to the variance in risky behaviours in the positive direction, while the contribution of peer pressure and sensation seeking were non-significant. This means although all the three independent variables combined and accounted for 16.8% of the total variance in involvement in risky behaviours, only conformity to traditional masculinity was found to be the significant contributor to involvement in risky behaviours i.e. conformity to traditional masculinity is the predictor variable with the largest standardized regression coefficient compared to peer pressure and sensation seeking.

This finding is consistent with prior research by Adugna (2015) who reported that conformity to traditional masculinity was a unique contributor of emerging adults’ health risk behaviours. However, this result is contradicting Levant et al.’s (2009) finding that reported conformity to masculine role norms was not significant predictor of risky behaviours. More researches need to be conducted in Ethiopia to determine if this finding is conclusive or not.

The finding of this study is also inconsistent with most prior research findings (e.g. Bradley & Wildman, 2002; Teese & Bradley, 2008) that revealed peer pressure significantly predicted emerging adults’ involvement in risk-taking behaviours. Moreover, the finding of this study is not in line with (Duangpatra et al., 2009) who reported that sensation seeking was the most powerful predictor of risk-taking behaviours. This finding is also inconsistent with previous research results (Hoyle et al., 2000; Romer & Hennessy, 2007) which reported sensation seeking predicted involvement in risky behaviours. These researchers forwarded the reason for their findings to be emerging adults’ motivation to be involved in new activities for the sake of achieving adventure and these self-governing deeds are related to some risk such as drugs, drinking alcohol, and sexual activities. Another reason they forwarded was a lack of impulse control and less monitoring from their guardians that places emerging adults at risk for negative consequences due to their engagement in risky kind of behaviours (Spear, 2007). In this study, the reason why traditional masculinity was found to be the unique contributor of the variance in risky behaviours, while the contribution of peer pressure and sensation seeking were non-significant was seemingly that the young people particularly the young men were strongly adhered to traditional masculine gender norms characterized by aggressiveness, bravery, dominance, and willingness to take risks etc, which might put young men’s health and their counters at risk.

Independent sample t-test was computed to compare male and female undergraduate students to determine if there are significant gender differences in their involvement in risky behaviours. Statistically significant gender difference was found in involvement in risky behaviours; males were found to be more involved in risky behaviours such as smoking, drinking alcohol, using ‘shisha’ and other substances and engaging in many sexual partners than the female participants. This is consistent with most literature explored, which have found clear differences between male and female participants with regard to risk-taking, with boys engaging in more extreme risk-taking behaviours than their female counterparts. For instance, many empirical studies reviewed by Courtenay (2000) consistently show that men are more likely to engage in almost every risky behaviours (e.g. alcohol use, tobacco use, not seeking medical care) increasing their risk of disease, injury and death. A study conducted by UNAIDS (2001) further revealed that men and boys use substances that are injected at higher rates than women and girls do. In another study, they noted that many young men believe that using alcohol and other substances not only helped them to prove their manhood but also assisted them with fitting in with their peers.

Conclusion

The finding of the present study revealed that significant numbers of undergraduate students were involved in risky behaviours, such as smoking cigarette, consuming alcohol, chewing Khat, using shisha and/or other substances, and having sex without condom during the last three months. In this study, it can be concluded that undergraduate students who had tendency of sensation seeking, highly influenced by their peers, and endorsed traditional masculinity were more likely to participate in risky behaviours. Male university students were more involved in risky behaviours such as smoking, drinking alcohol, using ‘shisha’ and other substances and engaging in many sexual partners as compared to female students.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that:

1. In this study, a higher level of traditional masculinity was associated with involvement in risky behaviours. As a result, it is important to indicate the direction to reduce this barrier. It has been indicated that as young men strive to conform to the requirements of traditional/hegemonic masculinity, they put their own health and that of their counterparts at risk. Thus, traditional masculinities should be challenged and replaced by alternative positive masculinities in a country’s effort to fight against STIs, unplanned pregnancies, and abuse of alcohol and other substances.

2. Masculinity is not something that is granted by biology at birth but is something that must be earned after birth through the process of socialization in a given cultural context which shows possibility of change. So, dominant male norms and notions of masculinities that are endangering men’s and their partner’s wellbeing can be challenged and changed over time.

3. Although most men and boys may feel obliged to live up to the expectations of traditional masculinity, there are also men who struggle to find alternatives and more gender equal identities. Risky behaviours of men can be reduced by offering men, particularly young men, with positive role models that successfully provide alternative expressions of masculinities, encouraging health positive behaviours.

4. In this study, higher levels of peer pressure and sensation seeking were positively correlated with involvement in risky behaviours. Thus, counsellors should provide adequate information on the negative and positive influence of peer pressure and sensation seeking for undergradute students. Counsellors could look for underlying issues that may have led to involvement in risky behaviours through peer pressure and sensation seeking and try to offer counselling on assertiveness skills, socialization skills and improving self-concept.

5. Future research should advance the literature by examining how sensation seeking and peer pressure mediates the relationship between masculine norms and involvement in risky behaviours among emerging adults.

Limitations

As is the case in any research, this research is not free from limitations. First, the study cannot prove a causal association between traditional masculinity, peer pressure, sensation seeking, and risky behaviours because of the survey nature of its methodology. To establish the causal link, an experimental study design is required. Second, demographic variables including age, year, religiosity, family income and place grown-up were not analysed in this study while these variables might have significant association with involvement in risky behaviours. Third, in an attempt to determine the extent to which the youth involves in risky behaviours in general, the author combined involvement in various risky behaviours into one dependent variable. It is reasonable to analyse the different risky behaviours individually as there is considerable variation in the prevalence of those outcomes. Fourth, the indirect contribution of masculine norms to emerging adults’ involvement in risky behaviours through peer pressure and sensation seeking was not analysed in this study; thus, it is logical to run path analysis to determine such direct and indirect associations among the study variables. Despite these drawbacks, the current study contributes to our understanding of the relationship between traditional masculinity, peer pressure, sensation seeking and risky behaviours among undergraduate students in Wollega University, Ethiopia.

Ethical standards

The author assert that all procedures contributing to this work comply with the ethical standards of the relevant national and institutional committees on human experimentation and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2008.

Ethical approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

Data will be available on the reasonable request from the principal investigator.

Additional information

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sections