Zinc-Smelting Technology of China in the Ming and Qing Dynasties: The Smelting Furnaces

ABSTRACT

Academic discussion of traditional zinc-smelting technology in China has been hampered by a paucity of physical data recovered from early production sites. In recent years, however, the discovery of former zinc-smelting sites in the municipality of Chongqing in south-western China has provided important evidence from archaeological excavations that contribute to the study of this topic. Taking the smelting furnace found at the Linjiangerdui site in Zhong County as an example, this paper introduces and discusses the form, use and maintenance of the zinc-smelting furnace of the Ming Dynasty (AD 1368–1644), and makes a preliminary comparison with the smelting furnaces dating to the Qing Dynasty (AD 1636–1912) unearthed in Shizhu County and the mountainous Hunan Province in an attempt to elucidate the development and evolution of ancient Chinese zinc-smelting technology.

KEYWORDS:

• China
• Chongqing
• zinc-smelting technology
• Ming Dynasty
• Qing Dynasty

Acknowledgements

The comments made by the anonymous reviewers have helped to improve the quality of the manuscript and are gratefully acknowledged. This research was funded by the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (grant no. 2019M653456), Sichuan University (2021CXC14 and 2035xd-02), and The National Social Science Fund of China (15ZDB056).

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Sarah Bunney, ‘Zinc Smelting Began in India’, New Scientist 8 (December 1983): 738; Paul T. Craddock, L. K. Gurjar and T.M. Hegde, ‘Zinc Production in Medieval India’, World Archaeology 15, no. 2 (1983): 211–17; K.T.M. Hegde, ‘Zinc and Brass Production in Ancient-India’, Interdisciplinary Science Reviews 14, no. 1 (1989): 86–96; Arun Kumar Biswas, ‘Zinc and Related Alloys: The Pioneering Traditions in the Ancient and Medieval India’, Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals 59, no. 6 (2006): 911–24; Wenli Zhou, Marcos Martinón-Torres and Chen Jianli, ‘Distilling Zinc for the Ming Dynasty: The Technology of Large Scale Zinc Production in Fengdu, Southwest China’, Journal of Archaeological Science 39, no. 4 (2012): 908–21; Wenli Zhou, Marcos Martinón-Torres, Chen Jianli and Yanxiang Li, ‘Not So Efficient, but Still Distilled: The Technology of Qing Dynasty Zinc Production at Dafengmen, Chongqing, Southwest China’, Journal of Archaeological Science 43 (2014): 278–88; Hailian Chen and George Bryan Souza, ‘China’s Emerging Demand and Development of a Key Base Metal: Zinc in the Ming and Early Qing, c. 1400–1680s’, Journal of Material Culture 22, no. 2 (2017): 173–93; Zhou Weirong, ‘A New Study on the History of the Use of Zinc in China’, Bulletin of the Metals Museum 19 (1993): 49–53; Helen Wand, ed., Metallurgical Analysis of Chinese Coins at the British Museum (London: British Museum, 2005).

2 Paul T. Craddock, ‘The Origins and Inspirations of Zinc Smelting’, Journal of Materials Science 44, no. 9 (2009): 2181–91; Jianjun Mei, ‘A Comparison between the Ancient Zinc Smelting Techniques of India and China’, Studies in the History of Natural Science 12, no. 4 (1993): 360–7.

3 Hari C. Bhardwaj, ‘Indian Contribution to the Metallurgy of Zinc in Antiquity’ (paper presented at the 17th International Congress of History Science, 1985); Hari C. Bhardwaj, Metallurgy in Indian Archaeology (Varanasi: Tara Printing Works, 2000), 117–31.

4 Weizeng Yang, ed., Tiangongkaiwu Yizhu [‘A Critical Translation with Annotations of Tiangongkaiwu, by Song Yingxing’] (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 2021), 383.

5 Birui Xiao, ‘The Discovery and Research Review of Zinc Smelting in Ancient China’, in Chinese 中国古代炼锌考古的发现与研究综述, in Collection of Archaeological Relics in Chongqing, in Chinese 重庆文物考古论集, ed. Chongqing Cultural Heritage Research Institute 重庆市文化遗产研究院 and Chongqing Cultural Heritage Protection Centre 重庆文化遗产保护中心 (Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe 科学出版社, 2021), 226–36.

6 Yuniu Li, Birui Xiao, Gill Juleff, Wan Huang, Dadi Li and Jiujiang Bai, ‘Ancient Zinc Smelting in the Upper and Middle Yangtze River Region’, Antiquity 94, no. 375 (2020): e17, 1–7.

7 Dadi Li, Birui Xiao and Aimin Yang, ‘Excavation Report of the Linjiangerdui Zinc-Smelting Site, Zhong County in 2013’, in Chinese 忠县临江二队炼锌遗址2013年发掘简报, in Collection of Archaeological Reports on Follow-up Work of the Chongqing Three Gorges Project (First Album) 重庆三峡后续工作考古报告集（第一辑）, ed. Chongqing Municipal Bureau of Cultural Relics 重庆市文物局 and Chongqing Cultural Heritage Research Institute 重庆市文化遗产研究院 (Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe 科学出版社, 2019), 282–313.

8 Hongzhao Zhang, ‘The Origin of Zinc Use in China’, Kexue (Sciences) 8 (1923): 233–43; Zhang Hongzhao, ‘Re-discussion on the Origin of Utilization on Zinc in China’, Kexue (Sciences) 9 (1957): 1116–27.

9 Jin Wang, ‘Criticism on the Chemical Component and Ancient Application of Lead, Tin, Zinc, and Pewter of Wuzhu Coins’, in Chinese 五铢钱化学成分及古代应用铅锡锌镴考, Kexue (Sciences), (1923), 839–854.

10 Kuanghua Zhao, ‘Research and Explanation of Brass in China’, Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 6, no. 4 (1987): 323–31; Zhao Kuanghua, Zhou Weirong and Baozhang Guo, ‘Analysis of the Chemical Composition of Copper Coins in the Ming Dynasty’, Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 7, no. 1 (1988): 54–65.

11 Li Xu, ‘Investigation on Traditional Zinc-Smelting Technology in Mangu Area, Hezhang County, Guizhou Province’, Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 5, no. 4 (1986): 361–9.

12 Wenlong Hu and Rubin Han, ‘Ancient Zinc Smelting Technology in China Viewed from Traditional Zinc Smelting Method’, Chemistry Bulletin 7 (1984): 59–61.

13 Weirong Zhou, Xiangxi Fan and He Lin, ‘Experimental Evidence for the Use of Zinc Brass in Ancient China’, Studies in the History of Natural Sciences 13, no. 1 (1994): 60–4; Zhou Weirong, ‘Investigation of Traditional Zinc Smelting Technology in Yunnan-Guizhou Region and Re-Verification Research of Zinc Smelting History in China’, The Chinese Journal for the History of Science and Technology 18, no. 2 (1997): 86–96; Weirong Zhou, Study on Alloy Composition of Ancient Chinese Coins (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 2004), 175; Weirong Zhou, ‘Chinese Traditional Zinc-Smelting Technology and History of Zinc Production in China’, Bulletin of the Metals Museum 25 (1996): 36–47; Weirong Zhou, ‘The Emergence and Development of Brass-Smelting Techniques in China’, Bulletin of the Metals Museum 34 (2001): 87–98.

14 Weirong Zhou, Study on Alloy Composition of Ancient Chinese Coins, in Chinese 中国古代钱币合金成分研究 (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju 中华书局, 2004), 175.

15 Weirong Zhou, ‘Investigation of Traditional Zinc-Smelting Technology in Yunnan-Guizhou Region and Re-Verification Research of Zinc Smelting History in China’, The Chinese Journal for the History of Science and Technology 18, no. 2 (1997): 86–96.

16 Haiwang Liu, Jianli Chen, Yanxiang Li, W. Bao, X. Wu, R. Han, S. Sun and D. Yuan, ‘Preliminary Multidisciplinary Study of the Miaobeihou Zinc-Smelting Ruins at Yangliusi Village, Fengdu County, Chongqing’, in Metals and Mines: Studies in Archaeometallurgy, ed. Susan La Niece, Duncan Hook and Paul Craddock (London: Archetype in association with the British Museum, 2007), 170–8.

17 Yizhi Fang, Physics Tips, in Chinese 物理小识 (Beijing: Shangwu Yinshuguan 商务印书馆, 1937), 166.

18 Shizhen Li, Bencao Gangmu (Compendium of Materia Medica), Metallic Stone Section, Volume Eight, in Chinese 本草纲目（第一册金石部第八卷） (Beijing: Renmin Weisheng Chubanshe 人民卫生出版社, 1975), 470.

19 Yingxing Song, T'ien-Kung K'ai-Wu; Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century. Translated by E-Tu Zen Sun and Shiou-Chuan Sun (University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1966), 247.

20 Wugan Luo, Dadi Li, Di Mu, Jiujiang Bai and Birui Xiao, ‘Preliminary Study on Zinc-Smelting Relics from the Linjiangerdui Site in Zhongxian County, Chongqing City, South-West China’, Microchemical Journal 127 (2016): 133–41.

21 Dadi Li, Birui Xiao and Aimin Yang, ‘Excavation Report of the Linjiangerdui Zinc-Smelting Site, Zhong County in 2013’, in Chinese 忠县临江二队炼锌遗址2013年发掘简报, in Collection of Archaeological Reports on Follow-up Work of the Chongqing Three Gorges Project (First Album) 重庆三峡后续工作考古报告集（第一辑）, ed. Chongqing Municipal Bureau of Cultural Relics 重庆市文物局 and Chongqing Cultural Heritage Research Institute 重庆市文化遗产研究院 (Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe 科学出版社, 2019), 312.

22 Chongqing Institute of Cultural Relics and Youyang Cultural Relics Adminstration Institute, ‘Brief Report on the Yuchiling Site in Youyang County’, in Chinese 酉阳县鱼池岭遗址发掘简报, in Chongqing Zinc-Smelting Site Group, in Chinese 重庆炼锌遗址群, ed. Chongqing Bureau of Cultural Heritage & Chongqing Immigration Bureau (Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe 科学出版社, 2019), 171–176; Chongqing Institute of Cultural Relics, Fuling Museum, and Youyang Cultural Relics Adminstration Institute, ‘Brief Report on the Excavation of the Yuchiling Site in Youyang County’, in Chinese 酉阳县鱼池岭遗址发掘简报, in Excavation Report of Zoujiaba, Youyang County, ed. Institute of Cultural Relics Chongqing (Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe 科学出版社, 2012), 440–447.

23 Chongqing Institute of Cultural Relics, ‘Report on the Investigation and Trial Excavation of Shizhu Zinc-Smelting Site Group’, in Chinese 石柱炼锌遗址群调查、试掘简报, in Chongqing Zinc-Smelting Site Group, in Chinese 重庆炼锌遗址群, ed. Chongqing Bureau of Cultural Heritage & Chongqing Immigration Bureau (Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe 科学出版社, 2019), 134–156.

24 Chongqing Institute of Cultural Relics, ‘Brief Report on the Zinc-Smelting Sites in the Wind Power Construction Project Area in Shizhu County’, in Chinese 石柱风电场工程建设征地区炼锌遗址调查简报, in Chongqing Zinc Smelting Site Group, in Chinese 重庆炼锌遗址群, ed. Chongqing Bureau of Cultural Heritage & Chongqing Immigration Bureau (Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe 科学出版社, 2019) 157–170.

25 Chongqing Institute of Cultural Relics, ‘Report on the Investigation and Trial Excavation of Shizhu Zinc-Smelting Site Group’, in Chinese 石柱炼锌遗址群调查、试掘简报, in Chongqing Zinc Smelting Site Group, in Chinese 重庆炼锌遗址群, ed. Chongqing Bureau of Cultural Heritage & Chongqing Immigration Bureau (Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe 科学出版社, 2019), 123.

26 Chongqing Institute of Cultural Relics, ‘Report on the Investigation and Trial Excavation of Shizhu Zinc-Smelting Site Group’, in Chinese 石柱炼锌遗址群调查、试掘简报, in Chongqing Zinc-Smelting Site Group, in Chinese 重庆炼锌遗址群, ed. Chongqing Bureau of Cultural Heritage & Chongqing Immigration Bureau (Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe 科学出版社, 2019), 148.

27 Dadi Li, Jiujiang Bai and Dongshan Yuan, ‘Analysis of Zinc Smelting Archaeology’, Jianghan kaogu 江汉考古 (Jianghan Archaeology) no. 3 (2013): 113–22.

28 Hunan Provincial Research Institute for Cultural Relics and Archaeology, ‘Brief Report on Excavation of Tongmuling Mining and Metallurgy Site in Guiyang County, Hunan Province’, in Chinese 湖南桂阳县桐木岭矿冶遗址发掘简报, Kaogu 考古 6 (2018): 56–128; Wenli Zhou, Shengqiang Luo, Linheng Mo and Jianli Chen, ‘Zinc-Smelting Technology of Tongmuling Site in Guiyang, Hunan Province, from the Perspective of Distillation Retorts’, Cultural Relics in Southern China 3 (2018): 165–73.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Birui Xiao

Birui Xiao is a research fellow at Chongqing Research Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Chongqing, Chongqing, China. His research interests include industrial archaeology and archaeology in south-west China.

Wan Huang

Wan Huang is a PhD student at the School of Archaeology and Museology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China. Her research interests include archaeometallurgy and conservation of iron objects.

Lingxiao Ma

Lingxiao Ma, International Office, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.

Dadi Li

Dadi Li is the deputy director of Chongqing Research Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Chongqing, Chongqing, China.

Jiujiang Bai

Jiujiang Bai is the director of Chongqing Research Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Chongqing, Chongqing, China. His research interests include Neolithic and salt archaeology.

Yuniu Li

Yuniu Li is an associate professor at the School of Archaeology and Museology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China. His research interests include archaeometallurgy, industrial archaeology and experimental archaeology.