Challenges in the ocean economy of South Africa

ABSTRACT

This paper shows how four major challenges in the ocean economy is linked to the 15 global challenges and the sectors that are influenced by these challenges. The ocean is becoming a focal point in the discourse on growth and sustainable development, both at national and international levels. Human aspirations and economic growth exert pressure on the ocean and the marine ecosystem and, therefore, constitute challenges for sustaining growth and ocean economy development. This conceptual paper analyses definitions of the ocean economy, the ocean economy’s contribution toward world economic growth, the 15 global challenges, and specific challenges in the South African ocean economy. Four critical challenges are highlighted, firstly, pollution, which includes environmental disasters such as oil spills and dumping at sea, secondly, illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, thirdly, climate change and, finally, disease events. As both private and public sectors should address these challenges, this research identifies possible reform measures for further consideration by these sectors to find possible solutions.

KEYWORDS:

• Ocean economy
• challenges
• marine ecosystem
• environment

1. Introduction

The ocean economy is a crucial factor in relation to global economic growth and development, offering favourable opportunities. It is estimated that 30% of South Africa’s population lives within 60 km of the coast (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2014). In 2016, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) identified a wide range of global trends and macro-factors, which would influence the longer-term development of the ocean economy (OECD, 2016). The combined effect of global trends and macro-factors coupled with the opportunities of expanding economic, social, and health-related opportunities through ocean use, would further increase the pressures already impacting the ocean’s health (Findlay, 2018). Furthermore, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) identified the ocean as a vital source of food and providing livelihoods for a significant segment of the global population as well as means of transport for approximately 80% of global trade (Department of Transport, 2017; UNCTAD, 2018). The ocean economy also offers several opportunities for sustainable and equitable blue growth in both the traditional and emerging sectors (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2014; Sturesson et al., 2018; Mbanda & Fourie, 2020). However, the ocean economy is influenced by a combination of environmental, social, economic, and policy issues and drivers, which are evident in discussions regarding the future of ocean resources across regions (OECD, 2016; UNCTAD, 2018). As well, the increased number of activities and interest in ocean space has created continued uncertainties in relation to the ocean economy’s future, which policymakers, scientists, and citizens alike must urgently consider.

This paper identifies the challenges in the South African ocean economy and demonstrates how the 15 global challenges in the ocean economy are linked, and which sectors would be influenced. The intention of the paper is to provide guidance as to what is required to ensure a sustainable South African ocean economy. As such, the paper addresses the following research questions:

1. What are the global challenges in the ocean economy, and which challenges are specific to South Africa?

2. Which sectors will be influenced by the ocean economy challenges, and how can these challenges be addressed?

2. Challenges and the ocean economy in perspective

In this theoretical overview, the ocean economy is first defined, and the challenges are clarified. The ocean economy industries and world economic growth are then presented including a discussion of the15 global challenges, which are present in the ocean economy. Thereafter, the South African ocean economy is described before further specific challenges are identified.

3. Describing the ocean economy

The term ocean is used in this paper to indicate that a broader emphasis of activities undertaken within the ocean’s space and in the adjacent coastlines is considered (OECD, 2016). The activities highlighted by the OECD (2016) include shipping (maritime transport), ports, oil and gas exploration, coastal geo-engineering, marine recreation and tourism, fishing, aquaculture, and renewable energy farms. The concept of the ocean economy is further defined by Walker (2018:6) as that ‘portion of the economy that relies on the ocean as an input to the production process or which by geographic location, takes place on or under the ocean’. Dwyer (2018) identified the global significance of the ocean economy as the sum of the economic activities of ocean-based industries, and the assets, goods, and services of marine ecosystems. Essentially, this ocean economy is a cluster of interconnected industries that incorporates a mix of established as well as newer activities. These activities include offshore oil gas exploration, shipping, shipbuilding and marine equipment, fisheries and fish processing, aquaculture as well as coastal and marine tourism. Park & Kildow (2014) defined the ocean economy as economic activities that take place in the ocean, receive outputs from the ocean, and provide goods and services to the ocean. In other words, the ocean economy can be defined as the economic activities that directly or indirectly take place in the ocean, use the ocean’s outputs, and put goods and services into the ocean’s activities (Park & Kildow, 2014).

The ocean economy encompasses that ‘proportion of the economy which relies on the ocean as an input to the production process or which, by virtue of geographical location, taking place on or under the ocean’ (OECD, 2016). The terminology, definition, classification standard and scope differ by country in terms of distribution of coastal resource use taking into consideration the 200-nautical mile exclusive economic zone or the length of a country’s coastline and the extent of upstream and downstream activities such as oil refining or fish processing from ocean economy activities (Park & Kildow, 2014).

For the purpose of this paper, the ocean economy is described as an industry that involves a large number of highly productive activities and result. If well-managed, these activities and results could make a powerful contribution to South Africa’s economic take-off such as trade and transport activities by sea, namely, port activities and industries, fishing and exploitation of fishery and aquaculture resources, mining, oil and gas resources, exploitation of renewable marine and hydraulic energies, seaside, and coastal tourism as well as ocean technologies, marine protection services, and governance. This paper focuses on elements of the South African ocean economy that are economically significant and present management challenges.

4. Ocean economy industries and world economic growth

Putting a value on ocean-based industries raises public awareness of their importance, offers them higher visibility, and highlights the impact of ocean industries on business and sustainability. It also raises awareness among policymakers, rendering the industries more amenable to policy action. In addition, it enables progress in their development to be tracked over time and their contribution to the overall economy to be tracked in monetary and employment terms. Finally, it lends weight to the perception of ocean-based industries as an increasingly interconnected set of activities whose defining common denominator is the ocean, its use, and its resources (OECD, 2016). Moreover, as ocean-based activities, particularly, the emerging ocean industries, continue to grow, competition around the globe will intensify, making it essential for governments and businesses to be able to compare and position the national ocean economy at an international level.

The Economic Intelligence Unit (2015) describes the components of the ocean economy as:

• Harvesting of animate and inanimate resources

• Generating new resources such as energy and fresh water

• Providing trade and commerce in and around the ocean

• Providing health and protection management

Given the wide and growing range of economic activity dependent upon and shaped by the ocean, economists in recent years have begun to measure this activity collectively, as a unique segment of the global economy, which they designate as the ocean economy. According to Visbeck et al. (2017), the ocean economy concept is subject to multiple interpretations because of the number and range of activities, geographical locations and sectors. From the available literature, an indicative list of sectors and the activities falling within those sectors are illustrated in Table 1. While some studies classify different sectors of the ocean economy into traditional and emerging sectors, there remains a common position on this view within the literature or among researchers that highlight the value between oceans as a productive resource on its own and other sectors.

Table 1. Components of the global ocean economy.

Sector	Activity
Fishing	Capture fishery, aquaculture, seafood processing
Marine biotechnology	Pharmaceuticals, chemicals, seaweed harvesting, seaweed products, marine derived bio-products
Minerals	Oil and gas, deep-sea mining (exploration of rare earth metals, hydrocarbon)
Marine renewable energy	Offshore wind energy production, wave energy production, tidal energy production
Marine manufacturing	Boat manufacturing, sail making, net manufacturing, boat and ship repair, marine instrumentation, aquaculture technology, water construction, marine industrial engineering
Shipping, port and maritime logistics	Ship building and repairing, ship owners and operators, shipping agents and brokers, ship management, liner and port agents, port companies, ship suppliers, container shipping services, stevedores, roll on roll off operators, custom clearance, freight forwarders, safety and training
Marine tourism and leisure	Sea angling from boats, sea angling from the shore, sailing at sea, boating at sea, water skiing, jet skiing surfing, sail boarding, sea kayaking, scuba diving, swimming in the sea, bird watching in coastal areas, whale / dolphin watching, visiting coastal natural reserves, trips to the beach, seaside and islands
Marine construction	Marine construction and engineering
Marine commerce	Marine financial services, marine legal services, marine insurance, ship finance and related services, charterers, media and publishing
Marine ICT	Marine engineering consultancy, meteorological consultancy, environmental consultancy, hydro-survey consultancy, project management consultancy, ICT solutions, geo-informatics services, yacht design, submarine telecom
Education and research	Education and training, Research and Development

Source: Visbeck et al. (2017).

The main economic drivers affecting the ocean economy components are diverse and extensive in relation to the various sectors and activities as listed in Table 1. The ocean economy is constantly evolving, and as a result, drivers of dominance also change. In the past, traditional sectors such as shipping and fisheries have been dominant, but emerging sectors such as marine renewable energy and biotechnology are beginning to gain more significance. The management and coordination of these components is crucial for the sustainable development of the ocean economy. International agreements are central to achieving this coordination and management, as they provide a framework for collaboration among nations (OECD, 2016). Such agreements facilitate the sharing of technological advancements, the establishment of common global standards, and the coordination of research and development efforts. In doing so, nations can effectively manage the impact of emerging sectors on the ocean environment and ensure the sustainable development of the ocean economy, (OECD, 2016; World Bank and United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2017).

4.1. The 15 global challenges and the ocean economy

The Millennium Project (2015) highlights 15 global challenges and provides a background to assess the global and local prospects for humanity (World Economic Forum, 2013; The Millennium Project, 2015). The identified 15 global challenges are interdependent, therefore, an improvement in one challenge creates an opportunity to address other challenges in a more meaningful manner. On the other hand, deterioration in one challenge makes it harder to address challenges. However, it is important to note that all 15 global challenges are all equally important. The challenges are list as:

• Addressing global climate change and sustainable development

• Providing sufficient clean water without conflict

• Balancing population growth and resources

• Ensuring genuine democracy from authoritarian regimes

• Ensuring policymaking and sensitivity towards global long-term perspectives

• Providing the global convergence of information and communications technologies

• Promoting ethical market economies in reducing inequality

• Reducing threat of new and re-emerging diseases and immune microorganisms

• Improving the capacity to decide as the nature of work and institutions change

• Reducing ethnic conflicts, terrorism, and the use of weapons of mass destruction through shared values and new security strategies

• Improving the human condition through the changing status of women

• Preventing transnational organised crime networks from becoming more powerful and sophisticated global enterprises

• Meeting growing energy demands safely and efficiently

• Accelerating scientific and technological breakthroughs and improved human conditions

• Incorporating ethical considerations into global decisions

The International Maritime Organisation (2019) identified climate change as the defining issue and the greatest challenge to sustainable development. As noted previously, the 15 global challenges as listed above have an impact on the ocean economy; which researchers (Spamer, 2015; Wasim, et al., 2017) have identified in relation to the global preservation and sustainable utilisation of the ocean as a resource. The oceans play a vital role in terms of ecosystem functionality, natural resource provision and regulating the earth’s climate (Wasim et al., 2017; Walker, 2018). The oceans also regulate the global climate by mediating temperature, driving the weather, and determining rainfall, droughts and floods (WWF-SA, 2016).

4.2. South Africa’s ocean economy

South Africa has a long maritime history, with a coastline of 3924 kilometres, and access to an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of oceans that covers 1.54 million square kilometres (Potgieter, 2018). The EEZ means that South Africa has jurisdiction over a vast sea area totalling approximately 1.54 million square kilometres, which exceeds its total land territory of 1.2 million square kilometres and is the site of considerable ocean-based traffic and activity (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2016; Potgieter, 2018). An estimated 30 000 vessels sail through South African waters annually. The EEZ further grants South Africa the rights to develop marine resources contained therein. South Africa relies on eight major seaports spread along its coastline for trade, namely, Saldanha Bay, Cape Town and Mossel Bay are found in the Western Cape; Gqeberha, Ngqura and East London in the Eastern Cape as well as Durban and Richards Bay in KwaZulu-Natal. South African ports are some of the largest in Africa. Durban is Africa’s busiest, handling over 87 million tons of cargo per year (Transnet, 2019).

South Africa has rich and productive coastal waters that currently employ around 316 000 people in the ocean economic sector and contribute millions of rand to the national economy each year (Van Wyk, 2015; WWF-SA, 2016). The estimated total contribution of coastal resources (without regulatory services) to the South African economy is approximately R57 billion (WWF-SA, 2016). The direct economic benefits from coastal resources, including the marine fishing industry, port and harbour development as well as the attractive lifestyles, recreation and tourism opportunities offered by a coastal location, are estimated to be around 35% of South Africa's annual gross domestic product (GDP) (WWF-SA, 2016). The Department of Environmental Affairs (2014) and Van Wyk (2015) indicate that 58% of South Africa’s GDP is based on trade, and 98% of South Africa’s trade volume moves by ship, in addition, the country generates a significant 3.5% of the world’s seaborne trade volume.

South Africa’s coastal areas generate substantial cash flows through their ecosystem services including tourism, recreation, and fishing (WWF-SA, 2016; Walker, 2018). The Department of Tourism (2017) further note that coastal areas generate over R10 billion per year from recreation and tourism alone. Coastal protection and flow regulation has been estimated at R3.5 billion per year. These resources are also valuable to local people, for instance, estuaries generate nearly R65 million a year from subsistence harvesting and fishing. They also contribute R4.2 billion per annum to the South African economy. However, the development of estuaries and their catchments has come at a cost of about R700 million per annum in terms of lost fishery benefits as well as unknown costs to society from the overexploitation of resources and loss of biodiversity (Walker, 2018). While estuaries may be viewed as small environmental domains, the larger coastal system in many ways cannot survive without them.

The Department of Environment Forestry and Fisheries (2020) has recognised 22 commercial fisheries with revenues estimated at R300 million annually, which is expected to increase annually. The squid industry is one of South Africa’s most valuable fisheries generating R500 million in foreign revenue per annum. Although commercial fisheries are well-managed, and reliable catch and research data is collected annually, several fish species are being overfished and some stocks have collapsed. Half or 50% of South Africa’s fish stocks are of concern with 22% considered heavily fished and 25% considered heavily depleted (Department of Environment Forestry and Fisheries, 2020). The South African economy is characterised, on the one hand, as developed and able to compete with other countries in mining, manufacturing, agriculture and services. However, the country is characterised as a developing country, with challenges in infrastructure, economic inequality, high unemployment rate (a primary source of poverty, which could fuel social instability and violent strife against the government) (Schröder & Storm, 2020). If such issues are not resolved, South Africa may move into a competitive economic situation where nations will seek to solve the challenges of stagnant or regressive economic growth (United Nations Environment Programme, 2012). This implies that the ocean economy can play a role in mitigating against the challenges of infrastructure, economic inequality, and the high unemployment rate in South Africa.

The Operation Phakisa initiative (with its focus on the ocean economy) in August 2013 with a view to boost economic growth, job creation and foster infrastructural development within the South African ocean economy (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2014). The South African government has set out policy measure to preserve life under water, such as fishing regulations and introduced the governance and marine protection services lab or sector under the Operation Phakisa initiative, which is key in promoting life, both in the sea and on land (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2014). In implementing the Operation Phakisa Strategy (Odeku, 2020), South Africa identified a few projects under the Coastal and Marine Tourism industry and the report that Department of Environmental Affairs (2016) provided to parliament highlighted various initiatives, which needed consultation and an integrated approach from government, business and societies. Table 2 outlines the six key sectors in the South African ocean economy and the various subsectors that have been developed in growing and promoting a sustainable ocean economy.

Table 2. Key sectors in the South African ocean economy.

Sector	Sub-sector
Marine transport and manufacturing	Shipping Port infrastructure and development Transportation and regional trade
Offshore oil and gas exploration	Offshore oil exploration Offshore gas exploration
Fisheries and aquaculture	Fishing Aquaculture
Marine protection services and ocean governance	Marine protected areas Maritime regulatory Naval defence
Small harbour development	Marine coastal services Transport Maritime logistics
Coastal and marine tourism	Boating and cruising Sport and recreation Leisure

Source: Researcher’s own construction.

Through highlighting the key sectors in the South African ocean economy, it demonstrates the sustainability of operations in the ocean economy as per the identified six sectors in the Operation Phakisa strategy and how these are key for anticipating the future for South Africa’s Ocean economy.

4.3. Challenges in developing a sustainable ocean economy

The ocean provides food for many, and coastal communities often provide jobs, energy, and raw materials, which enables global trade as well as recreational and cultural services. Yet, developing and growing the ocean economy is becoming a serious challenge as marine resources are essential to help meet the planet’s growing needs in food, energy, jobs, medicines, and transport (OECD, 2019). On the other hand, increasing the use of seas and ocean, the natural resources, and the services they provide, adds to mounting pressures on marine ecosystems. The marine environment is already straining under the weight of pollution, rising water temperatures and levels, loss of biodiversity, growing acidification and other impacts associated with climate change. The result of this unsustainable growth in ocean-related economic activity, further undermines the very foundations on which the ocean economy stands.

4.3.1. Pollution

Häder & Gao (2019) as well as OECD (2019) have suggested that rapidly growing, prosperous and technologically more-advanced societies are increasingly impacting the local and the global ocean environment, leading to pollution by both chemical and physical waste. Eighty per cent of ocean pollution is from land sources, such as industrial and agricultural run-off, plastics pollution, heavy metals (especially mercury) from coal-fired power stations, as well as carbon dioxide and other harmful greenhouse gases from the transport sector (World Economic Forum, 2013; OECD, 2016; Unger et al., 2017). The ocean chemistry is changing faster than at any point in perhaps 300 million years owing to the absorption through solution in seawater each year of around 30% of anthropocentric CO₂ gas pollution. The damage caused through rising acidification is creating an unprecedented and unpredictable impact on ocean life that cannot be easily reversed (OECD, 2016; Unger et al., 2017; Intergovernmental Panel on Climatic Change, 2019).

4.3.2. Illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing

Overfishing is contributing to the rapid decline of many fish species and fish stocks. In 2017, the FAO estimated that almost a third of global fish stocks were overfished (Walker, 2018). It is further reported that there is a one in five chance that any item of seafood purchased nowadays has been fished illegally. Illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing is theft and, currently, takes $24 billion a year of revenue away from nations where fisheries sustain important livelihoods, often in developing countries and small island states. Such actions represent approximately 20% of the $120 billion global seafood market. This poses a threat to a sustainable ocean economy as the scale of IUU fishing is increasing, which is a key driver of overfishing. African countries need to confront the broader problem, that the extent and impact of maritime crime is frequently transnational in nature, as comprehensively set out in the AIM Strategy – 2050 (Walker, 2018). The AIM Strategy resolves to address issues beyond piracy to produce a comprehensive picture based on an expanded concept of maritime security (Walker, 2018).

4.3.3. Climate change

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2017) have determined that the average sea surface temperature has been consistently higher during the past three decades than at any other time since reliable observations began in 1880. Ocean acidification refers to increasing levels of dissolved carbon dioxide in the ocean. It diminishes the ocean's capacity to act as the earth's biggest carbon sink (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2017). This reduced ability of the ocean to absorb atmospheric carbon will contribute to increased risk to atmosphere and land ecosystems by increasing the rate of climate change. Ocean environmental management provides a balance between maintaining productivity and biodiversity in an ecosystem and optimising the yield of marine resources. This is a key objective for sustainable development (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2017; Engel, 2018).

Not only are global populations dumping large amounts of plastic waste into the oceans, but also the insensibility of over-fishing many species are a growing concern. Numerous international organisations are involved in efforts to address the challenges of sustainable use of the ocean (United Nations Environment Programme, 2012; International Union for Conservation of Nature, 2015; OECD, 2016; IMO, 2019). The OECD (2016), while contributing at international policy level to specific aspects of ocean-related issues such as fisheries, shipbuilding, marine biodiversity, and biotechnology, has to date not turned its attention to economic activities in the ocean more broadly. The main challenges range from the availability of additional sites and better management of fish stocks, combating pollution from ships and land-based sources, to dealing with the effects of climate change and reducing animal protein in feed based on wild fish catch (United Nations Environment Programme, 2012; OECD, 2016).

4.3.4. Disease events

Epidemics impact people’s health and livelihoods far beyond the direct effects of the outbreak in the sectors of the countries where the disease occurs. Health is fundamental to a prosperous productive society, whereas panic and illness can stifle production, consumption, recreation, travel, and overall well-being (Morens et al., 2004; Lawanson & Evans, 2019; Adeola & Evans, 2020; Mbanda & Fourie, 2020). Health disasters such as the Ebola virus in West Africa, the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) outbreak in the Republic of Korea, and the rise of COVID-19 have not only had global health impacts but also caused = wide-ranging socio-economic disruptions (Huber et al., 2018; Lawanson & Evans, 2019; Notteboom et al., 2021). During 2003, with the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) epidemic, the global economy lost an estimated $40 billion (Morens et al., 2004; World Bank, 2016). The direct economic burden of the 2014 Ebola outbreak is estimated between $2.8 billion and $32.6 billion of lost gross domestic product, with the comprehensive economic and social costs factored in, the cost to the global economy was estimated at over $51 billion, with $18 billion in deaths from non-Ebola causes (Lawanson & Evans, 2019). Adeola & Evans (2020) argued that the impact of the outbreak of the SARS-CoV-2 spread from Asia to other parts of the world including Europe, and with the emergence of many SARS-CoV-2 cases in Italy and South Korea, two of the world’s major economies, concerns have been raised regarding a global economic damage.

The link between the challenges in SA ocean economy, the 15 global challenges and the sectors affected.

In the theoretical overview four challenges in developing a sustainable ocean economy were presented, the 15 global challenges in the ocean economy were outlined as well as the sectors that are affected. Table 3 outlines the major challenges that could potentially hinder the development of a sustainable ocean economy in the next 20–30 years and it further shows how they are linked to the global challenges and the sectors affected. Pollution and climate change were key to promoting healthy oceans as well as proper governance and coordinated efforts on combating illegal fishing and reducing new and re-emerging diseases.

Table 3. The link between the major SA ocean economy challenges, the 15 global challenges and affected sectors.

Major ocean economy challenge	15 global challenges	Sectors affected
1. Pollution	Reducing threat of new and re-emerging diseases and immune microorganisms	Marine transport and manufacturing Offshore oil and gas exploration Fisheries and aquaculture Small harbours Coastal and marine tourism
	Meeting growing energy demands safely and efficiently	Marine transport and manufacturing Offshore oil and gas exploration Fisheries and aquaculture Small harbours Coastal and marine tourism
2. Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing	Balancing population growth and resources	Marine transport and manufacturing Offshore oil and gas exploration Fisheries and aquaculture Marine protection services and governance Small harbours Coastal and marine tourism
	Promoting ethical market economies in reducing inequality	Marine transport and manufacturing Offshore oil and gas exploration Fisheries and aquaculture Marine protection services and governance Small harbours Coastal and marine tourism
	Preventing transnational organised crime networks from becoming more powerful and sophisticated global enterprises	Marine transport and manufacturing Offshore oil and gas exploration Fisheries and aquaculture Marine protection services and governance Small harbours Coastal and marine tourism
3. Climate change	Addressing global climate change and sustainable development	Marine transport and manufacturing Offshore oil and gas exploration Fisheries and aquaculture Marine protection services and governance Small harbours Coastal and marine tourism
	Sufficient clean water without conflict	Marine transport and manufacturing Offshore oil and gas exploration Fisheries and aquaculture Marine protection services and governance Small harbours Coastal and marine tourism
	Accelerating scientific and technological breakthroughs and improved human conditions	Marine transport and manufacturing Offshore oil and gas exploration Fisheries and aquaculture, Marine protection services and governance Small harbours Coastal and marine tourism
4. Disease events	Reducing threat of new and re-emerging diseases and immune microorganisms	Marine transport and manufacturing Offshore oil and gas exploration Fisheries and aquaculture Marine protection services and governance Small harbours Coastal and marine tourism
	Balancing population growth and resources	Marine transport and manufacturing Offshore oil and gas exploration Fisheries and aquaculture Marine protection services and governance Small harbours Coastal and marine tourism
	Accelerating scientific and technological breakthroughs and improved human conditions	Marine transport and manufacturing Offshore oil and gas exploration Fisheries and aquaculture Marine protection services and governance Small harbours Coastal and marine tourism

Source: Researcher’s own construction.

As shown in Table 3, the major ocean economy challenges and the associated global challenges impact all the six key ocean economy industries. Thus, it is necessary to explore innovative approaches as many changes are unfolding both in the ocean and in the science, research and innovation (STI) policy landscape (OECD, 2019) in mitigating the identified challenges. A sustainable ocean economy cannot be addressed by any government or institution acting alone, nor can it be approached by focusing on one sector and not analysing the interrelated nature of the ocean environment. A sustainable ocean economy future requires collaborative action among governments, international organisations, corporations, universities, NGOs, and creative individuals. BRICS has stimulated an ongoing debate about its future roles and impact in the international system. Much of the debate takes shape around its politico-economic influences, its rise as a counter to the international status quo, and how it could reconfigure matters directing the international system are areas worth exploring specifically around key ocean industries identified in the various countries.

5. Discussion and managerial implications

The ability for countries to meet growing energy demands safely and efficiently through sustainable water provision, mechanical, and thermal ocean energy industries remain key for a thriving ocean economy. The advances in science and technology are not only crucial for growing the innovation, research, and skills within coastal communities but also key in putting the specific maritime nation on the map and improving social standards. This has a direct impact on the standards of living and possible attraction of investors as well as promoting tourism within coastal areas. In assessing food security, fish is usually low in saturated fats, carbohydrates, and cholesterol, providing not only high-value protein but also a wide range of essential micronutrients, including various vitamins, minerals, and polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids. Thus, even in small quantities, the provision of fish can be effective in addressing food and nutritional security among the poor and vulnerable populations in South Africa and around the globe (Adeleke et al., 2020). With reduced social challenges (namely, population densities in coastal areas, improved education levels and communicable diseases), this will assist in growing the ocean economy and promoting resilient economies that can survive after an economic crisis as it happened in 2009 with the global economic crisis, and with the current COVID-19 pandemic. Global trade and geographical positioning along key transport routes are key features for development and developing countries as they correlate highly with various key sectors and expose countries and coastal nations to global economic activity (UNCTAD, 2020).

Rajeev (2019) determined that corporate social responsibility programs, ethical marketing, and social investing are increasing and will become important as countries move towards sustainability and promoting healthy oceans. There is a need to acknowledge the opportunities and benefits of the ocean economy, which covers the areas of sustainable use of the ocean, where it is used reasonably and sustainably without overexploiting the ocean resources (Rajeev, 2019; Odeku, 2020). New technologies make it easier for more people to do better at a faster pace than ever before. They may also be evolving from protests around the world that show a growing unwillingness to tolerate unethical decision-making by power elites.

Sector-specific practical guidelines are necessary to promote an integrated and sustainable ocean economy for South Africa, and include:

• Investment, as well as the capacity for innovation and technological evolvement in South African institutions and stakeholders responsible for ocean economy growth, remain key.

• In preparing for a competitive ocean economy, South Africa needs to prepare for an upsurge in re- and upskilling in specific areas such as nautical engineering, mechanical engineering, maritime law, analytical thinking and innovation in ocean economy sectors, technology design and programming skills, as well as human or soft skills such as creativity, originality and initiative, critical thinking, persuasion and negotiation skills, attention to detail, resilience, flexibility and complex problem-solving.

• Rapidly changing workplace environments require rapidly changing skillsets. Skills-development providers must be scalable in answer hereto and be able to maintain lifelong re- and upskilling as the environment rapidly changes with artificial intelligence (AI) and automation advances in ocean economy industries.

• Collaboration between government, businesses, investors, communities, and community-based organisation must be developed to not only become more productive and competitive, but also to ensure humans remained relevant to sustainable ocean economies for many years to come.

Besides the sectoral specific guidelines more interaction between the private sector and government to effect the necessary changes are needed.

6. Conclusion

In this paper, four possible challenges were identified, namely, pollution such as environmental disasters, for example, oil spill and dumping at sea as well as illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, climate change and disease events, which requires both private and public sectors intervention. However, South African private and public sectors are fragmented and divided, which means that additional effort is needed to ensure that prosperous partnerships are created; and intervention action is taken.

To promote a sustainable ocean economy in South Africa, it is vital to consider the different key economic, demographic, environmental and socio-economic aspects. This requires the stimulation of new thoughts on a broader developmental approach to South Africa’s Ocean economy development, and the identifying of knowledge gaps in a broad range of research issues relating to the level of complexity in planning and decision-making environments.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).