Experiences of female higher education academics in Zimbabwe: A decolonial feminist perspective

abstract

The low representation of women in leadership positions continues to characterise higher education institutions (HEIs) in Africa. Most senior positions, from Programme Coordinators, to Departmental Chairpersons, Deans of Faculties, Directorships and Vice-Chancellorships, remain occupied by men. Arguments for more representation of women in academic leadership positions have largely been shaped by neoliberal feminist thoughts which emphasise gender parity or numerical representation. While critical, the limitation of this approach is that it lacks engagement with the lived experiences of women academics in HEIs, which still carry colonial legacies, and patriarchal structures and processes. In the context of scholarly discussions on the need to decolonise HEIs, coupled with a rising critique of hegemonic western feminist influence, there are pertinent questions on how women academics respond to, and resist the gendered policies, structures and processes in universities, using alternative feminisms. This study offers a feminist interrogation of the experiences of black women occupying decision-making positions in two of Zimbabwe’s HEIs, presenting the results of qualitative empirical research. It explores the extent to which decolonial feminism and associated ethics of care have influenced women empowerment, shaping and improving experiences of female academics in leadership positions within HEIs in Zimbabwe.

keywords:

• higher education
• female leadership
• barriers
• decolonial feminism

Introduction

The low representation of women in leadership positions continues to characterise higher education institutions (HEIs) in Zimbabwe and indeed in the African region. There continue to be debates and concerns on the need to increase representation of women in the leadership of HEIs. To show its commitment towards the achievement of gender equality and equity, the Government of Zimbabwe has ratified a number of regional and international conventions whose objectives are to promote and realise the rights of women and to achieve gender equality and equity (United Nations Development Programme 2011). Similarly, most countries in Africa have ratified these regional and international conventions – but women’s representation in positions of leadership, particularly in institutions of higher learning – remains a challenge.

A number of barriers affect women’s aspirations towards leadership positions in HEIs in Zimbabwe and Africa at large (Mwale 2017; Lewis 2017). This article explores the strategies that have been employed by HEIs in trying to increase women’s participation in leadership positions. This work also explores the complexities of women’s experiences in their quest to progress to leadership positions in HEIs.

Literature review

Decolonial feminist theory

Decolonial feminist theory engages with debates relating to coloniality, modernity, Global South identity and gender. It provides a platform for the voices and experiences of silenced women in management and organisation studies (Bhambra 2014; Lugones 2010; Paludi, Helms Mills & Mills 2019; Schiwy 2007). Decolonial feminist theory as a framework provides space for women in the management of organisations to become agents in the production of knowledge and become a visible part of the management discourse. Decolonial feminist theory values all knowledge as well as lived experiences as equal (Haraway 1988; Manning, 2021). Decolonial feminism implies a new worldview of seeing and understanding gender which emanates from marginalised women in the Global South. Lugones (2010) avers that applying a decolonial feminist framework aids in identifying the complexities of women’s lived experiences.

Gender issues in leadership of HEIs

Leadership has been part of human experience since people formed groups to survive threats from rival groups, the environment, and dangerous animals (Elkland et al. 2017). Terry (2012) views leadership as the ability to direct others to complete specific tasks. Drawing from studies conducted in Africa, Europe and other continents, women in education management are in the minority (Coleman 2001). This is despite the many strategies employed to address gender imbalances, such as education for all and gender mainstreaming. Getskow (1996) attributes the low representation of women in leadership positions to gender inequality. In HEIs women are limited to roles such as Secretary, Administrator, Programme Coordinator and Departmental Chairperson, which are not high-ranking positions. While there are women occupying the position of Vice-Chancellor in tertiary institutions, the numbers are still very small (Mardiyati 2014).

Women in higher education struggle with the lack of mentors and role models as well as with tensions between work, family and community (Cooper et al. 2007; Wolfinger et al. 2009). As a result, these women carry a heavier load, which leaves them with less time dedicated to their careers when compared to their male counterparts. Martin (2011) further argues that women in lower socio-economic groups lack the power, competence and academic capacity that is needed for them to survive through the higher education system. Literature reviewed concurs that the ancient managerial systems under which men monopolised access to higher education managerial positions, with women relegated to the domestic sphere, was under attack in both developing and developed nations.

While efforts have been put in place to accelerate the inclusion and advancement of women, the numbers of women attaining senior management positions is still considered disproportionate to the number of women employed in HEIs (Nazemi, Mortazavi & Borjalilou 2012; Zinyemba 2013). In Zimbabwe, the Women and Men Report (Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency 2019) corroborates that in 2019 there were 11 Vice-Chancellors of State universities in Zimbabwe and these were all males. Women’s dedicated efforts to challenge the status quo have allowed more women to reach positions of power in recent years, but they continue to be underrepresented in all areas of decision-making, such as religion, the media, culture, law and military services. Women also face significant barriers to their full and equal participation in the structures and institutions which govern their lives.

Experiences of women in higher education leadership

An examination of women’s careers in the higher education sector reveals a number of challenges that are faced by female leaders. Despite the gains women have made in attaining higher degrees in the past few decades, they are still underrepresented in tenure track positions and senior management positions (Martin 2011; Jacinta & Arquisola, 2021). While numbers of women in administration of HEIs has steadily increased, the same women do not pursue or attain leadership positions at senior managerial levels. Baumgartner and Johnson-Bailey (2011) opine that institutional discrimination through policies, practices, norms and traditions is a contributory factor. This disadvantages one social group while benefitting the other.

Methodological approach

A qualitative research approach was followed in exploring the experiences of female higher education academics in Zimbabwe through a decolonial feminist lens. The study sought to establish the experiences and challenges encountered by 12 women from selected HEIs in Zimbabwe. The research was conducted through a phenomenological case study research design, and presents results from an empirical study which examined the application of decolonial feminism in women’s empowerment, through the lived experiences of the 12 women. This research approach was the preferred design for this study at it was considered ideal for describing the in-depth experiences of women in leadership positions and how they relate to the issue of decolonial feminism as care in higher education. Jacelon and O’Dell (2005) state that case studies are ideal for exploring real situations in depth. In support of this view, Neuman (2014, p. 42) states that “the case-study research design intensively investigates one or a small set of cases, focusing on many details within each case and the context”. The research was guided by the interpretivist research paradigm.

Research site

The study was conducted at two universities in Zimbabwe. In-depth face-to-face interviews were conducted privately with the 12 participants in their offices on campus. The interviews were structured and their duration ranged between 30 and 45 minutes.

Participants

Purposive sampling was applied during the selection of the study participants. This is a very specific type of convenience sampling, involving actively seeking subjects who are found to have the specific combination of characteristics that are essential to the study (Leedy & Ormrod 2005, 2015). With reference to Yin (2003), purposive sampling is a deliberate way of sampling, with some purpose or focus in mind. Twelve women in leadership were drawn from two universities in Zimbabwe through purposive sampling. Participants were women in academic positions of leadership, from the level of Programme Coordinators, to Departmental Chairpersons, Deans of Faculties, and Directors to the Vice-Chancellor. They had been employed by the selected universities for not less than two years. The study therefore excluded male employees and female employees who did not occupy positions at the stated level or had held such positions for less than two years.

Data collection through in-depth face-to-face interviews

The research employed in-depth face-to-face interviews as the method for data collection. As suggested by Neuman (2014), in-depth interviews are a reliable technique for data collection, because ambiguities can be clarified and incomplete answers followed up during the interview. Face-to-face interviews are also advantageous because detailed questions can be asked, complex and unknown issues explored and non-verbal data can be collected through observation (Marshall & Rossman 2012; Yin, 1994). The interview process involved giving the participants a brief overview of the background to and purpose of the study, seeking informed consent as well as informing them of their rights during the interview process. When participants were unable to meet with the researcher face to face, data was collected online through WhatsApp video calls.

Questions asked during the interviews touched on what measures the universities had taken to address historical imbalances in representation of women in their leadership structures, the challenges militating against participation of women in leadership positions, feminist ideas influencing women as leaders, and how they were applying these ideas to their work. Participants were also probed on whether they thought the institution was empathetic to the needs of female leaders as care, the strategies employed by the universities towards empowering women for leadership positions, gender policies in place within the institutions, and whether the policies are gender-sensitive as well as capturing the interest of the African woman. Furthermore, the interview probed how women in leadership positions were responding to these policies in the event that they were not favourable. Responses provided by the participants were captured using a recording device and then transcribed as part of the data analysis process. The data gathered from the in-depth interviews was analysed through thematic analysis.

Data presentation and analysis

Data was analysed though thematic analysis. Lapadat (2010, p. 2) states that “thematic analysis is a systematic approach to the analysis of qualitative data which involves identifying themes or patterns of cultural meaning, coding and classifying data, usually textual”. Data was thematically analysed following Creswell and Creswell’s (2014) steps of analysing qualitative data as follows:

1. Organising and preparing the data, including listening to audio recordings and transcriptions.

2. Reading all the data repeatedly to get the overall meaning, general ideas and credibility before analysing it.

3. Coding, which involves placing segments, pictures, and text data in categories and labelling them with a term.

4. The description stage, with generation of a description of the setting for the people or events as well as categories for analysis.

5. Addressing the findings from the analysis.

6. Interpretation, where findings are presented in detailed narrations following the dominant themes emerging from the research.

Ethical considerations

As ethical considerations form an integral part of the research process, informed consent was sought from the participants, who also received an information sheet showing key information pertaining to the research such as the research title, research aims and intentions, the researcher’s details, clearance letters, as well as their rights during the research process. Participants were also made aware of their right to withdraw from the research process at any stage should they wish to do so.

The study upheld the ethical principle of privacy and confidentiality, and the identity of the participants was not made public. The study adopted the use of pseudonyms in place of the participants’ actual names. The study further ensured that the participants and the researcher were not subjected to any form of physical or psychological harm, and interviews were conducted in safe environments on the university premises. It was also considered important to guard against the risk of emotional harm to the participants throughout the study.

Findings

The study established that there are number of challenges militating against the participation of women in the leadership of HEIs in Zimbabwe. The study further revealed that while strides have been made towards increasing women’s participation in leadership of HEIs, the number of women occupying positions from the level of Faculty Deans upwards was still very low, and the concept of decolonisation as care in higher education was not very visible. The major challenges raised by the participants as faced by women in their quest to become leaders in HEIs in Zimbabwe are outlined below.

Major challenges faced by women in HEIs

Gender stereotypes and biases

Participants bemoaned the persistence of gender stereotypes and biases against women as leaders as a barrier to women’s participation in leadership. Although legal and institutional frameworks have been put in place to support equal opportunities and reverse historical imbalances in Zimbabwe’s higher education sector, the representation of women in leadership positions is still low. One participant stated that:

In a country where only two women are Vice-Chancellors out of the over 14 universities, more effort needs to be made towards empowering women for leadership positions in institutions of higher learning and increasing the number of women in leadership positions. Men are still dominating higher education leadership in Zimbabwe.

This is supported by the response from Marvelous, who stated that:

Some males perpetuate patriarchal practices in the work place environment where women are in positions of authority, they make deliberate attempts to frustrate the women in leadership positions through insubordination.

While participants acknowledged the fact that the number of women in leadership positions had been increasing steadily in the years since the country gained independence, five of the participants stated that they had experienced gender stereotyping and discrimination in their careers. Similarly, Mazvita narrated that she encountered situations where she felt that her male counterparts did not believe that she could undertake the responsibility of heading a faculty as Dean. She said:

There are always sentiments of criticism that you have to deal with almost on a day-to-day basis if you are a woman in leadership. Men will deliberately test you, even those in positions that are lower than yours, just to see how you will react.

Lack of leadership training and mentorship networks

The women who participated in the study confirmed that the lack of leadership training and mentorship was limiting the level of women’s participation in Zimbabwe’s higher education leadership. Edith bemoaned the absence of mentorship forums and networks for women in middle management and early career academics as a barrier:

Forums like the World Women University Presidents Forum and the Forum for Women Vice Chancellors in Africa are platforms where women heading institutions of higher learning meet to discuss issues pertaining to their leadership of higher education institutions. There is need to establish more forums like these for early female academics and women in middle management in order to provide networking and mentoring platforms as well as encourage more women to take leadership roles.

Balancing the demands of work and personal life

Participants highlighted challenges associated with balancing work and personal life as a major barrier to the participation of women in leadership positions in HEIs in Zimbabwe. Tendai said:

Though most job adverts encourage female candidates to apply, women have to consider other issues such as family demands, especially for those married with children and elderly parents, religion, community responsibilities, which results in them having more commitments when compared to their male counterparts. As there is no special care given to them when they take up these positions, some end up not applying for leadership positions as they are demanding in terms of time and commitment.

In support of this view, Summers (2005) suggests that women are underrepresented at the top of science and engineering disciplines because such leadership positions require a level of commitment that they are not ready to make. Cooper et al. (2007) posit that family care issues, particularly parenthood, have a more negative impact on promotion, tenure, and leadership for women than for men, since women have a disproportionate share of domestic duties.

Strategies employed by institutions towards empowering women for leadership positions

Staff development programmes

Participants were requested to share their views on the strategies employed by their institutions towards empowering women for leadership positions. They gave an account of how their different institutions had taken strides towards empowering women academically through offering them staff development opportunities. This had seen some women rising within the university structures.

Sheila, a Pro Vice-Chancellor, gave an account of her experience with the staff development programmes:

When I joined the university, I was a lecturer with a Master’s degree. I got the opportunity to further my studies through the staff development programme which funded for my PhD. I rose from being a Programme Coordinator to the position of Faculty Dean, then I became a Pro Vice Chancellor responsible for Academic Affairs.

The women highlighted that while staff development programmes were going a long way in empowering women academically, there was a need to go beyond that. Strategies needed to be put in place for management development programmes and mentorship in order to prepare these women for leadership positions. This was supported by Chenai, who said:

Whilst we appreciate staff development programmes, there is need for a paradigm shift in terms of organisational culture. Gender mainstreaming is key and institutions should ensure employees both male and female are gender-sensitised through training. This will foster a culture of care and support for women in leadership positions.

In support of this view, 8 of the participants advocated for gender mainstreaming in HEIs. Gender-responsive budgeting, recruitment and selection, promotion guidelines, and staff development policies need to be gender-sensitive in order to support the interests of the African woman in academia and foster decolonisation as care in higher education.

Decolonisation as care in higher education

Participants concurred that in line with addressing historical imbalances associated with colonial mindsets, HEIs had taken strides towards increasing the number of women in leadership positions in such institutions through the legal and institutional frameworks set up by the Government of Zimbabwe. In Zimbabwe a university was established with the mandate of addressing gender disparities and fostering equity in university education. The university has an enrolment policy of 85% women and 15% men. This enrolment policy addresses historical imbalances while enabling more women to fulfil their academic aspirations. The orthodox woman who could not attend university is now being given the opportunity to attain university education. Participants indicated that the university has made deliberate efforts to increase the participation of women in its leadership. The key positions like Vice-Chancellor, Pro Vice-Chancellor, Registrar and Librarian are occupied by women. Isabel had this to say:

Institutions need to do more as far as supporting women in leadership positions is concerned. Senior positions in institutions of higher learning from the level of Faculty Dean up to the Vice-Chancellor are still male-dominated.

Similarly, Chenai stated that:

Though women were afforded the same opportunities as their male counterparts when it comes to job adverts, the actual working environment is not conducive as you would want it to be. No one takes care of women’s needs, for example through mentorship and institutional support. Employed nursing mothers are sometimes left out in activities that require them to be away from home because the institution cannot cater for the child and their carer.

Similarly, Armenti (2004) argues that female university leaders encounter numerous challenges as parents and professors. These responses also concur with Wisker’s (1996 view that women are underrepresented in middle and high management positions in higher education. Chabaya, Rembe and Wadesango (2009), in a study conducted in Zimbabwe, revealed a lack of women in leadership positions in higher education locally, and in several other countries.

Feminist ideas influencing women’s leadership

On feminist ideas influencing women’s leadership, some participants had no knowledge of feminist theories given their training backgrounds. Two of the participants indicated that they were fluid feminists who were not influenced by feminist thoughts but rather focused on giving equal opportunities to both men and women. Sheila’s response regarding feminist ideas influencing her work was:

As my job entails dealing mostly with students both male and female, I barely use a feminist lens. I look at it from the view that women are not a homogenous group. Some women can also harm men.

Brenda said:

While opportunities are presented to women, the ground is not equal. Other women pull others down. They are the first to look down upon their fellow women. Organisational cultures and systems need to be more empathetic to women. Human resources policies should not be designed with a one-size-fits-all approach, as the needs of women are different from those of men. Without this, policies will continue drawing from colonialism and blaming culture.

Wadzanai highlighted that she looked at the situation from a Marxist feminist perspective, where men have a better financial muscle as compared to women. According to this perspective, one’s class determines where they can be or what they can do in society. As women happen to be disadvantaged from this viewpoint, there is therefore a need to avail more funding to women in the form of scholarships and grants in order to empower them academically, especially at doctoral level. Decolonisation still needs to take place in this regard, as most of the financial resources are in the hands of men.

Four of the participants were of the view that some leaders are empathetic, as in they could understand and share the feelings of another individual. Participants felt the personality of a leader to be a contributing factor. Although HEIs were decolonising, more work still needs to be done to increase the participation of women in leadership positions. More opportunities need to be availed to support more women in pursuing doctoral studies, as senior management positions now mostly require PhD holders. Most of the participants reiterated the fact that the needs of men and women were different and the two groups were not to be treated as homogenous.

Discussion of findings

Challenges faced by women in HEIs in Zimbabwe

Drawing from the responses obtained from the research, HEIs in Zimbabwe remain dominated by male leadership. This is perpetuated through recruitment and selection processes where male leaders will connive with their male counterparts to recruit a male candidate as opposed to a female. The women in leadership positions who took part in the research outlined that more work needs to be done towards addressing these imbalances.

The study also concludes that women are hindered by their triple role, which involves providing care for the family, their involvement in formal full-time jobs where they earn remuneration, and the duties that they undertake in the community or in religious settings. Some women fail to take up challenging positions as they end up feeling that they already have a heavy burden and may fail to have the flexibility that a leadership position demands. After considering these factors, some women refrain from competing for higher posts.

Furthermore, the study concludes that organisational cultures in Zimbabwe’s HEIs offer space for women to apply for leadership positions. Participants concurred that most job advertisements encourage women to apply. What is lacking is ‘care’ for women in leadership positions. The institutions do not consider the plight of women and the extra burdens that women are faced with outside of the work setting. Beyond the office women are mothers, wives, daughters or sisters-in-law, positions they assume in order to fulfil both cultural and societal obligations. The study concluded that these roles are overlooked in platforms that discuss the progression of women in the leadership of HEIs.

Decolonisation as care in higher education

The study concludes that through the various legal and institutional frameworks, Zimbabwe’s HEIs accord both male and female academics equal opportunities to be enrolled for undergraduate or postgraduate studies, regardless of race or gender. Through affirmative action, girls with lower points than boys enter some programmes. There is therefore a need to extend the policy on affirmative action to the criteria for selecting HEI leadership and promoting academic staff, in order to increase the participation of women in the leadership of HEIs and foster a culture of decolonisation as care in higher education.

Strategies for improving the participation of women in higher education leadership in Zimbabwe

Drawing from the responses obtained from the data collection process, the research concludes that Zimbabwe has taken steps towards ensuring that both men and women have equal access to higher education. However, the numbers of females in higher education leadership can be increased by supporting more women towards attaining their doctoral degrees through scholarships and bursaries. Positions of leadership in HEIs are moving more and more towards doctoral qualifications as a requirement, so there is a need to invest more training in doctoral degrees for women in academia. Additionally, the study concluded that while HEIs in Zimbabwe have made strides towards assisting female employees in advancing their academic qualifications through staff development programmes, there is a need to go beyond just educating these women. After attainment of their higher degrees, institutions need to groom these women for leadership positions through assigning them to mentors and enrolling them for management development programmes.

Finally, the study concludes that HEIs need to ensure gender-sensitivity in their policies through gender mainstreaming. Policies should consider the needs of both men and women and not assume that they are a homogenous group. Where the policies are gender-sensitive, the organisational culture becomes empathetic to the needs of both men and women at all levels. The commitment of HEIs can only be seen if policies speak to issues of decolonisation as care in higher education.

Conclusions and recommendations

In summary, the study identified conducting needs assessments, management development programmes, mentorship programmes, quota systems in recruitments and appointments and gender mainstreaming as strategies to increase the participation of women in leadership at HEIs.

Based on the findings, the study recommends that a quota system should be put in place to increase the number of women in leadership positions. There is also a need to conduct a needs assessment for women in leadership in order to provide them with platforms that will enable them to express their experiences and aspirations.

Staff development programmes should be backed up by clear strategies on retaining and promoting women after they have undergone training and obtained higher qualifications. Universities should go beyond offering staff development to female employees. After taking up leadership positions, there should be continuous professional development or management development programmes as care and support for women in leadership positions.

To increase the number of women professors, promotion guidelines should be gender-sensitive and consider the roles that women play as mothers, wives and caregivers outside the work environment compared to their male counterparts. Affirmative action should be extended to academic staff promotions.

Areas for future research

While this study mainly focused on women who are serving in leadership positions, future research should consider women aspiring to become leaders in HEIs. These can be women in administration or in middle management. Future research should also consider women employed in HEIs and living with disabilities to profile their experiences as they compete for leadership positions.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Barbara Tsverukayi

BARBARA TSVERUKAYI is a higher education administrator and a part-time lecturer in the Faculty of Social and Gender Transformative Sciences at the Women’s University in Africa, Zimbabwe. With over 14 years’ experience in higher education administration and management, she is a PhD candidate studying towards a Doctor of Philosophy in Public Administration. Her research area of specialisation is digitalisation of Zimbabwe’s public institutions of higher learning in the wake of persistent global pandemics. She holds a BSc Honours in Sociology and Gender Development, a Master’s in Public Administration and a BSc Special Honours in Monitoring and Evaluation. Email: [email protected]