‘A Daughter is Like a Pot of Fish Paste While a Son is Like Pure Gold’: Gendered Conceptions of ‘Human Dignity’ in Cambodia

ABSTRACT

The concept of human dignity is not universally understood and has many different meanings across diverse contexts. This article interrogates conceptions of human dignity in Cambodia by drawing on original interviews and focus groups and analysing references to ‘dignity’ in Cambodian law and cultural practices. Using the concept of ‘dignitarian feminism,’ it explores how patriarchal interpretations of social, cultural, and religious norms in Cambodia interact with and shape understandings of women’s dignity. It demonstrates that human dignity emerges as diverse, highly gendered, and heavily influenced by Cambodia’s patriarchal interpretation of social, cultural, and religious norms. While ideas of ‘intrinsic’ human dignity and gender equality are framed as valuable aspirations, in practice, understandings of women’s human dignity are shaped by patriarchal norms centred on ‘virtuous’ behaviour, women’s class, socio-economic status, and experience of violence. Such framings restrict women’s ability to exercise agency, their opportunities, and their ability to access justice in the face of violence. Ongoing feminist engagement with the risks of restrictive interpretations of fundamental human rights norms is necessary for women and gender minorities to have their intrinsic human dignity respected regardless of their attributes, life experiences, and backgrounds.

KEYWORDS:

• Human dignity
• women’s dignity
• dignitarian feminism
• gender
• Cambodia

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank Dr Rachel Killean, Dr Rosemary Grey, Dr Natalia Szablewska and Dr Christoph Sperfeldt for their comments on drafts of this paper. She would like to acknowledge Professor Hastings Donnan, Professor Christopher McCrudden, Dr Rachel Killean, Mr Kimsan Soy, Dr Christoph Sperfeldt, Dr Gillian Kane and Ms Khuochsopheaktra Tim for their important contributions to this project. Finally, she would like to thank the research participants for their time and generosity.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 See UN General Assembly, Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, Oct. 21, 2015, UN Doc. A/RES/70/1; James R May and Erin Daly, ‘The Indivisibility of Human Dignity and Sustainability’ in Sumudu A Atapattu, Carmen G Gonzalez and Sara L Seck (eds), The Cambridge Handbook of Environmental Justice and Sustainable Development (1st edn, Cambridge University Press 2021).

2 Christopher McCrudden, ‘In Pursuit of Human Dignity: An Introduction to Current Debates’ in Christopher McCrudden (ed), Understanding Human Dignity (Oxford University Press 2013); Marcus Düwell and others (eds), The Cambridge Handbook of Human Dignity: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (Cambridge University Press 2014).

3 Jack Donnelly, ‘How Does Dignity Ground Human Rights?’ in Hoda Mahmoudi and Michael L Penn (eds), Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Human Dignity and Human Rights (Emerald Publishing Limited 2019) 63.

4 McCrudden, ‘In Pursuit of Human Dignity: An Introduction to Current Debates’ (n 2).

5 Christopher McCrudden, ‘Comparative International Law and Human Rights’ in Anthea Roberts and others (eds), Comparative International Law, vol 1 (Oxford University Press 2018) 444.

6 Man Yee Karen Lee, ‘Universal Human Dignity: Some Reflections in the Asian Context’ (2008) 3(1) Asian Journal of Comparative Law 1; Sally Engle Merry, ‘Transnational Human Rights and Local Activism: Mapping the Middle’ (2006) 108(1) American Anthropologist 38.

7 Annika Thiem, ‘Human Dignity and Gender Inequalities’ in Marcus Düwell and others (eds) The Cambridge Handbook of Human Dignity: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (Cambridge University Press 2014); Christopher McCrudden, ‘Where Did “Human Dignity” Come from? Drafting the Preamble to the Irish Constitution’ (2021) 60(4) American Journal of Legal History 485.

8 ibid; Lee (n 6) 28; Deepak Ranjan Sahoo, ‘Depiction of Indian Women and the Legal Interpretation of Dignity of Women’ (2014) Odisha Review 68.

9 Orit Kamir, ‘A Dignitarian Feminist Jurisprudence with Applications to Rape, Sexual Harassment and Honor Codes’ in Robin West and Cynthia Bowman, Research Handbook on Feminist Jurisprudence (Edward Elgar Publishing 2019).

10 ibid; Sahoo (n 8).

11 Merry (n 6) 39.

12 Emily Anderson and Kelly Grace, ‘From Schoolgirls to “Virtuous” Khmer Women: Interrogating Chbab Srey and Gender in Cambodian Education Policy’ (2018) 12(2) Studies in Social Justice 215; Trude Jacobsen, ‘Being Broh: The Good, the Bad and the Successful Man in Cambodia’ in Michele Ford and Lenore Lyons (eds), Men and Masculinities in Southeast Asia (Routledge 2011).

13 See, e.g., Catharine A MacKinnon, ‘Substantive Equality: A Perspective’ (2011) 96(1) Minnesota Law Review 1; Thiem (n 7); Kamir (n 9).

14 Thiem (n 7) 498.

15 ibid 503.

16 Kamir (n 9) 307.

17 ibid 304. Note that the concept of dignitarian feminism has also been used by Erika Bachiochi in her book The Rights of Women: Reclaiming a Lost Vision (University of Notre Dame Press, 2021) to describe a feminism grounded in ‘basic dignity of every human being’ but also ‘the honor and nobility found in living human life excellently.’ However, Bachiochi’s approach has anti-reproductive choice connotations that are not endorsed here.

18 Kamir (n 9) 304.

19 ibid.

20 See Rosemary Grey, ‘Translating Gender Diversity in International Criminal Law: An Impossible but Necessary Goal’ (2022) 47(2) Australian Feminist Law Journal 163; Sara Kolah Ghoutschi, Alina De Luna Aldape and Thorsten Bonacker, ‘Translating Sexuality Education in Ethiopia and Kenya: A Multi-Sited Approach’ (2021) 47(2) Australian Feminist Law Journal 251; Miriam Bak-McKenna and Maj Grasten, ‘Law and Gender in Translation’ (2021) 47(2) Australian Feminist Law Journal 143.

21 Sally Engle Merry and Peggy Levitt, ‘The Vernacularization of Women’s Human Rights’ in Stephen Hopgood, Jack Snyder and Leslie Vinjamuri (eds), Human Rights Futures (Cambridge University Press 2017); Merry (n 6).

22 Peter Manning and others, ‘Transitional Justice Networks and the Role of “Local” Actors in Cambodia’ (2023) 18(2) Journal of Peacebuilding & Development 1.

23 ibid; Annika Björkdahl and Susanne Buckley-Zistel, ‘Spatializing Peace and Conflict: An Introduction’ in Annika Björkdahl and Susanne Buckley-Zistel (eds), Spatializing Peace and Conflict (Palgrave Macmillan UK 2016); see also Luis Eslava, Local Space, Global Life: The Everyday Operation of International Law and Development (Cambridge University Press 2015).

24 See, e.g., Amitav Acharya, ‘How Ideas Spread: Whose Norms Matter? Norm Localization and Institutional Change in Asian Regionalism’ (2004) 58(2) International Organization 239, 243-5; Lisbeth Zimmermann, ‘Same or Different? Norm Diffusion Between Resistance, Compliance, and Localization in Post-Conflict States’ (2016) 17(1) International Studies Perspectives 98, 104-5; Björkdahl and Buckley-Zistel (n 23) 8-9.

25 Merry and Levitt (n 21); Merry (n 6).

26 ibid.

27 Ethical approval for this research project (TGC/200177) was granted by Queen’s University Belfast School of Law Ethics Committee on 23 November 2020, and for more information about that, please contact the Principal Investigator, Dr Rachel Killean at: [email protected]. For more information about the project, visit: <https://law.qub.ac.uk/schools/SchoolofLaw/research/research-news/LocatingHumanDignityinCambodiaProjectCommences.html> last accessed 31 January 2024.

28 Judy Ledgerwood and Kheang Un, ‘Global Concepts and Local Meaning: Human Rights and Buddhism in Cambodia’ (2003) 2(4) Journal of Human Rights 531.

29 All research participants signed an informed consent form before the interview, which included information about the project, voluntary participation, and consent to participate, to be recorded and quoted with or without anonymity.

30 Joanne Neale, ‘Iterative Categorization (IC): A Systematic Technique for Analysing Qualitative Data’ (2016) 111(6) Addiction 1096; David L Morgan and Andreea Nica, ‘Iterative Thematic Inquiry: A New Method for Analyzing Qualitative Data’ (2020) 19 International Journal of Qualitative Methods.

31 Chbab Srey, a poem from the 19th century by Kram Ngoy, the father of Khmer poetry, is a set of advice from the mother to the newly married daughter to maintain peace in the family and respect her husband; see more at Anderson and Grace (n 12).

32 According to the Chuon Nath Dictionary, [thlaithnaur] as an adjective means being worthy of commendation or relation, and as a noun, it means a person, animal, or thing who or which is worthy of commendation or relation. Note that the translation of the term has been consulted with a professional translator (English-Khmer) and agreed upon by the project team for use in the project.

33 Boravin Tann and Rachel Killean, ‘Locating “Human Dignity” in Cambodia: A Review of Law, Policy and Civil Society Documentation’ (2021) Research Brief <https://www.qub.ac.uk/schools/SchoolofLaw/filestore/Filetoupload,1185699,en.pdf> last accessed 31 January 2024; those phrases include: sechaktei thlaithnaur chea mnous (dignity as a human); sechaktei thlaithnaur robsa mnous (dignity of a human); sechaktei thlaithnaur robos bokkol mnous (dignity of a human person); and sechaktei thlaithnaur knongnam chea mnous (dignity in the name of the human).

34 Grey (n 20) 165.

35 Hang, woman, executive director of a local NGO.

36 Socheat, woman, actress.

37 Lina, man, freelance translator and human rights advisor.

38 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948) 217 A(III) (UNGA), art 1; Christopher McCrudden, ‘Human Dignity and Judicial Interpretation of Human Rights’ (2008) 19(4) European Journal of International Law 655; Bas de Gaay Fortman, ‘Equal Dignity in International Human Rights’ in Marcus Düwell and others (eds), The Cambridge Handbook of Human Dignity: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (Cambridge University Press 2014).

39 de Gaay Fortman (n 38) 356.

40 Sok, man, local NGO staff.

41 McCrudden, ‘In Pursuit of Human Dignity: An Introduction to Current Debates’ (n 2) 9.

42 Oudom, man, university lecturer in Siem Reap.

43 Christopher McCrudden, ‘Human Dignity’ in Christina Binder and others (eds), Elgar Encyclopedia of Human Rights (Edward Elgar Publishing 2022) 434.

44 Sarun, man, university lecturer and court clerk in Siem Reap.

45 Dyna, woman, executive director of a local NGO.

46 Pich, woman, local NGO coordinator and activist.

47 Dyna, woman, executive director of a local NGO.

48 Such a phrase has neither a clear definition nor an explanation. In Cambodian culture, men are compared to 24k gold, meaning that regardless of being scorched by fire or tainted by anything, gold is still gold. As a connotation, irrespective of their conduct, men retain their honour as gold. On the other hand, women are contrasted with a pot of prahok, which is known for its pungent stench. In other words, it symbolises shame. For instance, if a girl misbehaves, it will harm her reputation, and the word will spread like a scent from one house or village to the next. Also, in Chbab Srey, women are taught to keep the three ‘flames’ in the house to avoid damaging their reputations.

49 Dara, man, university lecturer and researcher.

50 Hang, woman, executive director of a local NGO.

51 Lee Stone, Mmatsie Mooki and Nicholene Nxumalo, ‘“She Who Would Be King”: Identity, Dignity and Women’s Narrative’ (2020) 34(4) Agenda 3.

52 Matthew McManus, ‘A Critical Legal Conception of Human Dignity’ (2019) 18(1) Journal of Human Rights, 64.

53 ibid.

54 ibid.

55 Serei, woman, lawyer and university lecturer.

56 McManus (n 52) 64.

57 Susanne Zwingel, ‘How Do Norms Travel? Theorizing International Women’s Rights in Transnational Perspective: How Do Norms Travel?’ (2012) 56(1) International Studies Quarterly, 124; Tine Destrooper, ‘The Travel, Translation and Transformation of Human Rights Norms’ in Esperança Bielsa and Dionysios Kapsaskis (eds), The Routledge Handbook of Translation and Globalization (Routledge 2019) 442.

58 Ledgerwood and Un (n 28); Pou Sovachana and Alice Beban, ‘Human Security Problems in Cambodia: Far from Over’ in Yoichi Mine, Oscar A Gómez and Ako Muto (eds), Human Security Norms in East Asia (Springer International Publishing 2019).

59 Dara, man, university lecturer and researcher; Chetra, man, lawyer and university lecturer.

60 Kamir (n 9) 310.

61 McCrudden, ‘Human Dignity’ (n 43) 436.

62 Lee (n 6) 30.

63 McCrudden, ‘Human Dignity’ (n 43) 436.

64 Kamir (n 9) 310.

65 Socheat, woman, actress.

66 Chris Hunter, ‘Gender Equality Deep Dive for Cambodia: Common Country Analysis’ (UN Cambodia 2022) <https://cambodia.un.org/sites/default/files/2022-03/Gender%20Deep%20Dive%20-%20CCA%20Cambodia_V6_010322_LQ.pdf> last accessed 31 January 2024; Anderson and Grace (n 12).

67 Hunter (n 66) 12.

68 Judy Ledgerwood, ‘Changing Khmer Conceptions of Gender: Women, Stories, and the Social Order’ (Cornell University 1990).

69 Davy, woman, local journalist and digital creator (emphasis added).

70 Kunthea, woman, university lecturer and researcher.

71 Arun, man, international human rights NGO staff; Oudom, man, university lecturer and activist in Siem Reap.

72 Sopheak, man, judge of a provincial first instance court.

73 Kamir (n 9) 312.

74 ibid.

75 Kunthea, woman, university lecturer and researcher.

76 Mlis, woman, human rights and law lecturer; Dara, man, university lecturer and researcher.

77 Ponleu, man, museum staff and researcher.

78 Cambodian Civil Code, art 950; CEDAW, ‘Concluding Observations on the Sixth Periodic Report of Cambodia’ (UN 2019) CEDAW/C/KHM/CO/6 <https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3838743?ln=en#record-files-collapse-header> last accessed 31 January 2024.

79 Lee (n 6) 23.

80 Katherine Brickell, ‘“We Don’t Forget the Old Rice Pot When We Get the New One”: Discourses on Ideals and Practices of Women in Contemporary Cambodia’ (2011) 36(2) Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 437, 442; Katherine Brickell, ‘The “Stubborn Stain” on Development: Gendered Meanings of Housework (Non-)Participation in Cambodia’ (2011) 47(9) Journal of Development Studies 1353; Kamir (n 9) 311.

81 Anderson and Grace (n 12) 227.

82 Hunter (n 66) 5; CEDAW (n 78) 7.

83 Arun, man, international human rights NGO staff.

84 Bopha, woman, classical dancer and local NGO staff.

85 Socheat, woman, actress.

86 Brickell, ‘The “Stubborn Stain” on Development’ (n 80) 1354.

87 Lee (n 6) 30.

88 Mlis, woman, human rights and law lecturer.

89 Brickell, ‘The “Stubborn Stain” on Development’ (n 80) 1365; it is also a common practice in other Asian societies; see, e.g., Menghan Zhao and Soo-Yeon Yoon, ‘Telling a Different Story: Disparities in Perceived Fairness of Housework Division among East Asian Men’ (2023) 19(3) Asian Population Studies 251; Joyce Lai Ting Leong, Sylvia Xiaohua Chen, and Michael Harris Bond, ‘Housework Allocation and Gender (In)equality: The Chinese Case’ in Saba Safdar and Natasza Kosakowska-Berezecka (eds), Psychology of Gender Through the Lens of Culture (Springer 2015); Cirila P Limpangog, ‘Gender Equality in Housework among Professional Filipinas in Melbourne: Painfully Slow and Illusory?’ (2016) 23(9) Gender, Place & Culture 1240.

90 Dyna, woman, executive director of a local NGO.

91 Mongkul, man, senior NGO advisor and specialist.

92 Article 31 provides, ‘Every citizen of Cambodia shall have equality before the law … without discrimination as to sex.’

93 MoWA, ‘Neary Rattanak V: Five Year Strategic Plan for Strengthening Gender Mainstreaming and Women’s Empowerment 2019-2023’ (MoWA 2020) Policy Report.

94 MoWA (n 93) 1.

95 Brickell, ‘“We Don’t Forget the Old Rice Pot When We Get the New One” (n 80); Pablo Gilabert, Human Dignity and Human Rights (Oxford University Press 2018).

96 See, e.g., Tait Brimacombe, ‘Trending Trousers: Debating Kastom, Clothing and Gender in the Vanuatu Mediascape’ (2016) 17(1) The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology 17; Ladan Rahbari, Chia Longman and Gily Coene, ‘The Female Body as the Bearer of National Identity in Iran: A Critical Discourse Analysis of the Representation of Women's Bodies in Official Online Outlets’ (2019) 26(10) Gender, Place & Culture 1417; Leanna J. Papp and others, ‘Slut-shaming on Facebook: Do Social Class or Clothing Affect Perceived Acceptability?’ (2017) 34 Gender Issues 240; Beth Montemurro and Meghan M Gillen, ‘How Clothes Make the Woman Immoral: Impressions Given Off by Sexualized Clothing’ (2013) 31(3) Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 167.

97 Bopha, woman, law student in an FGD.

98 Kanika, woman, law student in an FGD.

99 Dara, man, university lecturer and researcher.

100 Sahoo (n 8) 72.

101 Katherine Brickell, ‘“We Don’t Forget the Old Rice Pot When We Get the New One”’ (n 80).

102 Mlis, woman, human rights and law lecturer.

103 Brickell, ‘“We Don’t Forget the Old Rice Pot When We Get the New One”’ (n 80); Jacobsen (n 12); MoWA (n 93).

104 ibid.

105 The draft law was released by the Ministry of Interior in July 2020 in its first phase for review and consultation with civil society organisations (CSOs) and inter-ministerial groups. As of the time of this writing, no updated draft has been released following the CSOs’ joint statement to disregard the draft law.

106 CSOs, ‘Civil Society Organizations Call for the Draft Law on Public Order to Be Immediately Discarded’ (2020) <https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/08/13/civil-society-organizations-call-draft-law-public-order-be-immediately-discarded> last accessed 31 January 2024.

107 Dyna, woman, executive director of a local NGO.

108 Cambodia News English, ‘Lotion Seller Apologizes for Sexy Online Antics’ (Cambodia News English, 9 February 2021) <https://cne.wtf/2021/02/09/lotion-seller-apologizes-for-sexy-online-antics/> last accessed 31 January 2024.

109 Samean Lay, ‘Bun Eng: On-Duty Officer’s Breastfeeding an Act to Admire’ (Phnom Penh Post, 10 March 2021) <https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/bun-eng-duty-officers-breastfeeding-act-admire> last accessed 31 January 2024.

110 The woman in the second example was, however, praised by the public, civil society, and representatives of the relevant ministry for her duty as a mother and police officer, while the police commissioner received public backlash. She was later monetarily compensated. See more at David Sen, ‘Bun Rany donates $2,500 to breastfeeding police officer’ (Khmer Times, 15 March 2021) <https://www.khmertimeskh.com/ 50824690/bun-rany-donates-2500-to-breastfeeding-police-officer/> last accessed 31 January 2024.

111 Kamir (n 9) 313.

112 Lee (n 6) 28.

113 Jack Donnelly, ‘Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights’ (1982) 76(2) The American Political Science Review 303; Jimmy Chia-Shin Hsu, ‘Introduction: Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Cultural Change in Asia’ in Jimmy Chia-Shin Hsu (ed), Human Dignity in Asia: Dialogue between Law and Culture (Cambridge University Press 2022).

114 McManus (n 52) 62–3.

115 Jeremy Waldron, ‘Dignity and Rank’ in Meir Dan-Cohen (ed), Dignity, Rank, and Rights (Oxford University Press 2012) 24.

116 McCrudden, ‘Human Dignity’(n 43) 437.

117 Judy Ledgerwood, Analysis of the Situation of Women in Cambodia: Research on Women in Khmer Society. Phnom Penh: UNICEF cited in Brickell, ‘“We Don’t Forget the Old Rice Pot When We Get the New One”’ (n 80) 438.

118 Dyna, woman, executive director of a local NGO.

119 Waldron (n 115) 33.

120 Glenn Michael Miles and others, ‘“Don’t Look Down on Us!”: Assessing the Vulnerabilities of Female Massage Parlor Workers in Phnom Penh, Cambodia’ (2020) 40(1) International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 20; Todd Morrison and others, ‘“You Have to Be Strong and Struggle”: Stigmas as a Determinants of Inequality for Female Survivors of Sex Trafficking in Cambodia’ (2021) 6(4) Dignity: A Journal of Analysis of Exploitation and Violence 1.

121 Kanika, woman, law student in an FGD.

122 Lina, man, freelance translator and human rights advisor (emphasis added).

123 Anderson and Grace (n 12); Brickell, ‘The “Stubborn Stain” on Development’ (n 80).

124 See Kimberle Crenshaw, ‘Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color’ (1991) 43(6) Stanford Law Review 1241; Stephanie A Shields, ‘Gender: An Intersectionality Perspective’ (2008) 59(5) Sex Roles 301.

125 Hunter (n 66) 10.

126 Norbert Campagna, ‘Human Dignity and Prostitution’ in Marcus Düwell and others (eds), The Cambridge Handbook of Human Dignity: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (Cambridge University Press 2014).

127 Stewart Cunningham, ‘Reinforcing or Challenging Stigma? The Risks and Benefits of “Dignity Talk” in Sex Work Discourse’ (2016) 29(1) International Journal for the Semiotics of Law - Revue internationale de Sémiotique juridique 45.

128 ibid 53.

129 Amin R Yacoub, ‘Consensual Sex Work: An Overview of Sex-Workers’ Human Dignity in Law, Philosophy, and Abrahamic Religions’ (2019) 76 Women’s Studies International Forum 17.

130 Hunter (n 66) 25.

131 Mongkul, man, senior NGO advisor and specialist.

132 Oudom, man, university lecturer in Siem Reap.

133 May and Daly (n 1) 10.

134 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (adopted 16 December 1966) A/RES/2200, Art 13.

135 Thiem (n 7) 499-501; Mark Omorovie Ikeke, ‘The Moral Duty to Struggle for Gender Equality for Women’ (2021) 12(2) Journal of Humanistic and Social Studies 132; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (adopted 18 December 1979) A/RES/34/180, Preamble.

136 See, e.g., Article 38 (the law protects the life, honour, and dignity of citizens) of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia.

137 The law provides neither definition nor explanation of the term ‘dignity’ despite its framing in the rights language.

138 Kamir (n 9) 306.

139 Oscar Schachter, ‘Human Dignity as a Normative Concept’ (1983) 77(4) The American Journal of International Law, 853.

140 Kamir (n 9) 308.

141 Socheat, woman, actress (emphasis added).

142 Anderson and Grace (n 12) 227–8.

143 Ulla Schmidt, ‘Poverty: A Challenge to Human Dignity’ (2010) 1(1) Diaconia 7; Julia Müller and Christian Neuhäuser, ‘Relative Poverty: On a Social Dimension of Dignity’ in Paulus Kaufmann and others (eds) Humiliation, Degradation, Dehumanization: Human Dignity Violated (Springer 2011).

144 Paulus Kaufmann and others, ‘Human Dignity Violated: A Negative Approach – Introduction’ in Paulus Kaufmann and others (eds) Humiliation, Degradation, Dehumanization (Springer 2011) 2.

145 Michael Rosen, Dignity: Its History and Meaning (Harvard University Press 2012); McCrudden, ‘Human Dignity’ (n 43) 437.

146 Sahoo (n 8) 71.

147 Ivana Radacic, ‘Rape’ in Paulus Kaufmann and others (eds) Humiliation, Degradation, Dehumanization (Springer 2011) 119; UN Population Fund (UNFPA), ‘My Body Is My Own: Claiming the Right to Autonomy and Self-Determination’ State of World Population (2021).

148 Mongkul, man, senior NGO advisor and specialist.

149 Kunthea, woman, university lecturer and researcher.

150 McCrudden (n 43) 437; Rosen (n 145) 60.

151 Tarunabh Khaitan, ‘Dignity as an Expressive Norm: Neither Vacuous Nor a Panacea’ (2012) 32(1) Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 3.

152 Kamir (n 9) 315.

153 ibid.

154 ibid.

155 Kunthea, woman, university lecturer and researcher.

156 Socheat, woman, actress.

157 Kamir (n 9) 316.

158 CARE International, ‘“I Know I Cannot Quit.” The Prevalence and Productivity Cost of Sexual Harassment to the Cambodian Garment Industry’ (CARE Australia 2017) <https://www.care-international.org/files/files/publications/SHCS_Full_Technical_Report_March_2017.pdf> last accessed 31 January 2024; UNFPA (n 142) 124; Hunter (n 65).

159 Rebecca M. Hayes, ‘“It’s Everywhere”: The International Reach of Rape Culture’ (2023) in Rebecca M. Hayes, Defining Rape Culture: Gender, Race and the Move Toward International Social Change (Emerald Publishing 2023) 31.

160 McCrudden, ‘Human Dignity’ (n 46) 437.

161 Lina, man, freelance translator and human rights advisor (emphasis added).

162 Katherine Brickell, Baureaksmey Prak and Poch Bunnak, ‘Domestic Violence Law: The Gap between Legislation and Practice in Cambodia and What Can Be Done about It’ (Royal Holloway; University of London 2014) <https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a0895340f0b6497400001e/60953_DV_Law_Prelim_Report_2014.pdf> last accessed 31 January 2024.

163 Kamir (n 9) 313.

164 Brickell, Prak and Poch (n 162).

165 CEDAW (n 78).

166 Davy, woman, local journalist and digital creator (emphasis added).

167 Hang, woman, executive director of a local NGO; Ponleu, man, museum staff and researcher.

168 Kamir (n 9) 317.

169 Dara, man, university lecturer and researcher.

170 Kamir (n 9) 317.

171 Mona Lilja, Power, Resistance and Women Politicians in Cambodia: Discourses of Emancipation (2008); The practices and myths can also be found in other Asian contexts; see, e.g., Irina Bergenfield and others, ‘Rape Myths Among University Men and Women in Vietnam: A Qualitative Study’ (2020) 37(3-4) Journal of Interpersonal Violence 1401; Jia Xue and Kai Lin, ‘Chinese University Students’ Attitudes Toward Rape Myth Acceptance: The Role of Gender, Sexual Stereotypes, and Adversarial Sexual Beliefs’ (2020) 37 (5-6) Journal of Interpersonal Violence 2467; Ravinder Barn and Ràchael A Powers, ‘Rape Myth Acceptance in Contemporary Times: A Comparative Study of University Students in India and the United Kingdom’ (2021) 36(7-8) Journal of Interpersonal Violence 3514.

172 NIS, ‘General Population Census of the Kingdom of Cambodia 2019: National Report on Final Census Result’ (National Institute of Statistics, Ministry of Planning 2020).

173 Kunthea, woman, university lecturer and researcher.

174 Jens Braarvig, ‘Buddhism: Inner Dignity and Absolute Altruism’ in Marcus Düwell and others (eds), The Cambridge Handbook of Human Dignity: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (Cambridge University Press 2014).

175 May and Daly (n 1); Brickell, Prak and Poch (n 162).

176 Alexandra Kent, ‘Global Change and Moral Uncertainty: Why Do Cambodian Women Seek Refuge in Buddhism?’ (2011) 23(3) Global Change, Peace & Security 405.

177 Katherine Brickell, ‘“Fire in the House”: Gendered Experiences of Drunkenness and Violence in Siem Reap, Cambodia’ (2008) 39(5) Geoforum 1667; Katherine Brickell, ‘Clouding the Judgment of Domestic Violence Law: Victim Blaming by Institutional Stakeholders in Cambodia’ (2017) 32(9) Journal of Interpersonal Violence 1358.

178 Kamir (n 9) 313.

179 Brickell, ‘Clouding the Judgment of Domestic Violence Law’ (n 172); Brickell, Prak and Poch (n 162).

180 UNFPA (n 147) 113; Hunter (n 66).

181 Kamir (n 9) 317.

182 Lee (n 6) 27.

183 Aisha K Gill and Avtar Brah, ‘Interrogating Cultural Narratives about “Honour”-Based Violence’ (2014) 21(1) European Journal of Women’s Studies 72.

184 Kamir (n 9) 319.

Additional information

Funding

This research was funded by the British Academy Humanities and Social Sciences Tackling Global Challenges Fund (project ‘Locating “Human Dignity” in Cambodia’, TGC\200177).

Notes on contributors

Boravin Tann

Boravin Tann is a researcher and lecturer at the Center for the Study of Humanitarian Law (CSHL) based at the Royal University of Law and Economics, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.