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ABSTRACT
This article explores the history of the Danish libertarian movement by analysing its ideological universe and networks, with a focus on Libertas, from the 1980s to the 2000s. To a large extent, the movement created its ideological universe and networks with resources drawn from American libertarianism that were adapted to and implemented in a Danish context. Over the course of two decades, Danish libertarians became prominent advocates of privatization with the aim of dismantling the welfare state and generated a wide reservoir of arguments for transforming the welfare state to a greater market-based organization through privatizing and marketizing its public sector. In four sections, the article illuminates the rise of the Danish libertarian movement in the context of a youth revolt from the right launched from within the Conservative Youth Party in the early 1980s and describes how a group of theoretically inclined and internationally oriented young conservatives pursued libertarian visions by contributing to political debates about privatization of the public sector and environmentalism in the 1980s and 1990s and finally how the libertarian movement in the 2000s moved closer to the established institutions of political power, while at the same time mushrooming into a plurality of smaller forums.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1. See first of all P. Kurrild-Klitgaard, ‘En tilfældig liberalist hændelige erindringer’, Libertas, 22b (1996).
2. See the introduction to this theme issue.
3. N. Olsen, ‘Welfare state criticism as elite criticism in 1970s Denmark’, in J. Östling, N. Olsen and D. Larsson Heidenblad (eds.) Histories of Knowledge in Postwar Scandinavia – Actors, Arenas and Aspirations Routledge (Routledge: London and New York, 2020), pp. 111–126.
4. J. Jensen and N. Olsen, ‘Jørn Henrik Petersen and the Origins of the Third Way: The Market Turn in the Danish Welfare State since the 1970s’, Scandinavian Journal of History, 47:2 (2022), pp. 203–224.
5. D. T. Rodgers, Age of Fracture (Harvard University Press, 2011); B. Jackson & R. Saunders (eds.) Making Thatcher’s Britain (Cambridge University Press, 2012).
6. L. Christensen, Ungdomsoprør: Konservativ Ungdom gennem 70 år (Frederiksberg: Konservativ Ungdom, 1994), pp. 88–93; B. Q. Holm, ‘Staten er et svin’, in M. Kongstad & H. Vesterberg (eds.) Dengang i 1980erne (København: Gyldendal, 2003), pp.146–149; M. Sabroe, ’På vej mod ulvens tid’, Information (May 14, 1982). The ideological universe of these ‘anarchocapitalists’ is first of all documented in the journal Profil that was issued by the Copenhagen faction of KU in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
7. ‘Politisk landsråd i KU’, Vi unge – Organ for borgerligt ungdomsoprør 8 (1981), pp. 6.
8. L. Poulsen, ‘Leder – Et konstruktivt ungdomsoprør’, Vi unge – Organ for borgerligt ungdomsoprør, 6 (1981), pp. 2.
9. J. Janting, ‘Her er de nye oprørere’, Jyllands-Posten (March 21, 1982); J. Mikkelsen, ‘Han leder en rastløs utålmodig skare’, Berlingske Tidende (May 30, 1982).
10. L. Christensen, Ungdomsoprør: Konservativ ungdom gennem 90 år (Frederiksberg: Konservativ Ungdom, 1994), pp. 92.
11. S. Hein Rasmussen and Poul Villaume, Et land i forvandling: Danmarks Historie, 1970–2005
(København: Gyldendal, 2007), pp. 276–277.
12. V. Fischer, ‘Det politiske mål for DEFF’, Vi unge – Organ for borgerligt ungdomsoprør 4 (1982), pp. 18–19.
13. J. Heimburger et.al., Revolutionens Nicaragua og Operation Dagsværk (Frederiksberg: Forlaget Kontrast, 1986).
14. P. Kurrild Klitgaard, ‘Classical Liberalism and modern political economy in Denmark’, Econ Journal Watch 12, 3 (2015), pp. 407; P. Mirowski & D. Plehwe (eds.) The Road from Mont Pelerin: The Making of a Neoliberal Thought Collective (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009).
15. N. Olsen, ‘A Second-Hand Dealer in Ideas: Christian Gandil and Scandinavian Configurations of European Neoliberalism, 1945–1970’, in H. Schulz-Forberg & N. Olsen (eds.) Re-Inventing Western Civilisation: Transnational Reconstructions of Liberalism in Europe in the 20th Century (Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing), pp. 137–167.
16. ‘Gandil was in 1989 given Libertas’ Adam Smith award, and, after his death, he was honoured by former KU member and founding member of Libertas Palle Steen Jensen. See P. Steen Jensen, ‘Christian Gandil, 1907–99, in memoriam’, Libertas, 29–30 (1999), pp. 25.
17. V. Dall, ‘Derfor Libertas Danmark’, Libertas, 1 (1982), pp. 2.
18. Libertas, ‘Libertas principdeklaration’, Libertas, 5 (1988), pp. 2.
19. Kurrild-Klitgaard, ‘En tilfældig liberalist’, op. cit.
20. B. Rasmussen, ‘Ideologi er noget bras’, Berlingske Tidende (December 30, 1984).
21. P. Brixtofte (ed.), Den truede velstand. En debatbog om hvordan vi får styr på den offentlige sektor (Holte: Forlaget Liberal, 1980); Det Konservative Folkeparti, En fremtid i frihed, 1981, pp. 10.
22. V. Dall, ‘Privatisering af den offentlige sektor’, Vor tid 20 (1982), pp. 15. Villy Dall, ‘Nedskæringspolitikken må erstattes af en reel privatisering’, Weekendavisen (August 6, 1982); Villy Dall, ‘Lad private overtage offentlige virksomheder’, Jyllands-Posten (November 4, 1982).
23. P. Steen Jensen, ‘Privatiseringer − 80’ernes opgave’, Vi unge 6 (1983), pp. 7–8.
24. P. Kurrild-Klitgaard, ‘Private sygehuse – ja eller nej’, Vi unge 6 (1983), pp. 5–7; Jensen,”Privatiseringer, op. cit.; R. Spliid, ‘3 forskellige former for privatisering’, Vi unge 6 (1983), pp. 9–10; O. Brøns-Petersen, ‘Privatisering = mere frihed’, Vi unge 7 (1983), pp. 9–10; R. Spliid, ‘Privatisering større valgfrihed – lavere skat’, Vi unge 7 (1983), pp. 12.
25. Brøns-Petersen, ‘Privatisering = mere frihed’, op.cit., pp. 9–10.
26. Ibid., 10.
27. Finansministeriet, Rapport afgivet af privatiseringsudvalget (Administrationsdepartementet, 1983). For an insightful comment on the Conservative Party’s report, see H. Dyremose, ‘Privatisering – Historien om en borgerlig holdningsændring’, in T, Rechendorff & Lars Kjølbye (eds.) P.S. Festskrift til Poul Schlüter på 70 års dagen 3. April 1999 (København: Aschehoug, 1999), pp. 130–139.
28. J. Henrik Petersen, K. Petersen & N. Finn Christiansen, Dansk Velfærdshistorie, vol. V (Odense: Syddansk Universitetsforlag, 2013), pp. 115–116.
29. Berlingske Tidende (June 30, 1985).
30. See for example H. Carmel, ‘Fortsæt diskussionen om dansk privatisering’, Børsen (August 11, 1986); O. Brøns-Petersen & P. Kurrild-Klitgaard, ‘Myter om privatisering’, Jyllands-Posten (April 15, 1987).
31. P. Kurrild-Klitgaard (ed.) Farvel til socialstaten – En bog om privatisering (Værløse: Forlaget Kontrast, 1988).
32. M. Holm, H. Carmel & P. Kurrild-Klitgaard, ‘Politisk efterskrift: privatiseringspolitikkens muligheder’, in P. Kurrild-Klitgaard (ed), Farvel til socialstaten – En bog om privatisering (Værløse: Forlaget Kontrast, 1988), pp. 133–134.
33. J. Heimburger, ‘Om igen!’, in Peter Kurrild-Klitgaard (ed), Farvel til socialstaten – En bog om privatisering (Værløse: Forlaget Kontrast, 1988), pp. 11.
34. F. Ziegler, ‘Ikke én, men mange modeller’, in Peter Kurrild-Klitgaard (ed), Farvel til socialstaten – En bog om privatisering (Værløse: Forlaget Kontrast, 1988), pp. 64.
35. Heimburger. ‘Om igen!’, op.cit., pp. 11.
36. K. Behnke, P. Ørum-Hansen & N. Erik Borges, Privatiseringer – den danske model (København: Forlaget Liberty, 1990).
37. O. Brøns-Petersen, ‘En bedre strategi’, in P. Kurrild-Klitgaard (ed), Farvel til socialstaten – En bog om privatisering (Værløse: Forlaget Kontrast, 1988), pp. 22.
38. P. Kurrild-Klitgaard, ‘En politisk-økonomisk mega-trend’, in P. Kurrild-Klitgaard (ed), Farvel til socialstaten – En bog om privatisering (Værløse: Forlaget Kontrast, 1988), pp. 70–122.
39. Ibid; L. Christensen, ‘Privatiseringer i Tjekkiet’, Libertas 21 (1995), pp. 6.
40. K. Viborg Andersen, C. Greve & J. Torfing, ‘Reorganizing the Danish Welfare State: 1982–93: A Decade of Conservative Rule’, Scandinavian Studies 68: 2 (1996), pp. 174–175.
41. Behnke, Ørum-Hansen, Borges, Privatiseringer, op.cit., pp. 44–62.
42. F. Aaen, ‘Privatisering og udlicitering i Danmark gennem 25 år’, in Anders Lundkvist (ed), Dansk Nyliberalisme (Copenhagen: Frydenlund, 2009), pp. 304.
43. A. Fogh Rasmussen, Fra socialstat til minimalstat (København: Samleren, 1993).
44. P. Kurrild-Klitgaard, ‘To be conceived in liberty’, in W. Block (ed), I chose liberty: Libertarian autobiographies, Ludwig von Mises Institute: Auburn, 2010), pp. 178.
45. See A. Sofie Kragh, Fogh, Historien om en statsminister (København: People's Press, 2004), pp. 122–246.
46. Venstre, Mennesket frem for systemet: Principprogram for Venstre (1995).
47. This is not to say that the libertarians were satisfied with the progress of privatization in a Danish context. See for example K. Behnke, ‘Fremtiden for privatiseringer’, Libertas 39 (2002), pp. 12–17.
48. Rasmussen and Villaume. Et land i forvandling, op.cit.
49. S. Steensen, Den økologiske krigsførelse (Ranum: Abildgaard & Brødsgaard, 1986).
50. Ibid., back cover.
51. B. Johan Collet, ‘Kampskrift om miljøhysteriet’, Vor Tid, nr. 8 (20 October 1986), pp. 14.
52. S. Steensen, ‘Ejendomsretten contra embedsretten’, Libertas nr. 1–2 (1987), pp. 5.
53. N. E. Borges, ‘Eksperterne er uenige om drivhuseffekt’, Libertas nr. 15 (1993), pp. 13.
54. N. Oreskes & E. Conway: Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming (New York: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2010).
55. N. E. Borges, ‘Ozonlaget: den gode fjende’, Libertas 16 (1993), pp. 11–12.
56. N. E. Borges, ‘Forurening og frie samfund’, Libertas 6 (1989), pp. 30.
57. Skatteministeriet, Skattepolitisk redegørelse (1992), pp. 88.
58. A. Fogh Rasmussen, ‘Den liberale økonomi’, Libertas 16 (1993).
59. Ibid.,10. However, Coase did not (in contrast to what Fogh Rasmussens texts from the early 1990’s suggest) develop ideas of the possibility of trading pollution on a market established by the state. This idea has roots in the work of other economic theoreticians. See N. Berta, ‘Efficiency without Optimality: Environmental Policies and Pollution Pricing in the Late 1960s’, Journal of the History of Economic Thought 42:4 (2020), pp. 539–562.
60. A. Fogh Rasmussen, Fra socialstat til minimalstat: En liberal strategi (København: Samleren, 1993), pp. 187.
61. See for example A. Fogh Rasmussen, ‘Dommedagsteorier skifter med vejret’, Information (1998).
62. B. Lomborg, Verdens sande tilstand (Viby J: Centrum, 1993).
63. A. Fogh Rasmussen, ‘Nytårstale 2002’, https://www.regeringen.dk/aktuelt/statsministerens-nytaarstale/anders-fogh-rasmussens-nytaarstale-1-januar-2002/.
64. P. Kurrild-Klitgaard (ed), Libertas 27–28 (1998).
65. M. Ågerup, Dommedag er aflyst. Velstand og fremgang i det 21. århundrede (København: Gyldendal, 1998).
66. N. Olsen, ‘Klimapolitikkens idéhistorie i Danmark 1980–2022’, Historisk Tidsskrift 122:1 (2022), pp. 182–202.
67. Se J. Løgstrup Madsen (red.). Den moderne liberalisme – rødder og perspektiver (København: Forlaget Breidablik, 1997).
68. See the organization’s webpage at https://cepos.dk
69. Most significantly Ole Birk Olesen, who contributed to Libertas in the 1990s and was the founder of 180 grader, became a prominent politician for Liberal Alliance when he entered parliament in 2011. See O. Birk Olesen, ‘Om repræsentanter’, Libertas 31 (1999), pp. 25; O. Birk Olesen, ‘Frem med privatlivet’, Libertas 25 (1998): 19; O. Birk Olesen, ‘Falske tungetalere’, Libertas 23 (1997), pp. 21. Moreover, financial support from the investment bank Saxo Bank was crucial for Liberal Alliance in the early days from 2008 to 2010 (on account of which critics labelled the party ‘Team Saxo Bank’ and the”Saxo Bank Party”), and Saxo Bank President Lars Seier Christensen contributed to constructing its political profile. See Schjørring & Jannerup, Værdikæmperne: Slaget om danskernes sjæl (København: Gyldendal, 2018), pp. 280–289.
70. See Nye Borgerlige, Danmark har brug for Nye Borgerlige, Principprogram, 2015.
71. Three issues of Libertas in 2008, 2011 and 2019 primarily dealt with values, culture, and immigration. See R. Toftegaard Selsing, Libertas, 47 (2008); R. Fonnesbæk Andersen et al. Libertas 50 (2011); Torben Mark Pedersen et al. Libertas, 69 (2019).
72. See M. Cooper, ‘The Alt-Right: Neoliberalism, Libertarianism and the Fascist Temptation’, Theory, Culture & Society, 38:6 (2021), pp. 29–50.