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ABSTRACT
This article explores women’s activism in the early 1970s through the organisation ‘Women Against the Common Market’ (WACM), founded by the former left-wing Labour MP Anne Kerr. WACM carved out a distinct niche among the growing collection of Eurosceptic organisations. Women were believed to be more ambivalent about EEC membership, and WACM was established to boost this perception. The group’s early successes came, in part, due to the flamboyant and dogged efforts of its founder. But, Kerr’s untimely death in 1973 deprived the group of a significant role in the EEC referendum two years later, leading subsequent histories to downplay its relevance. This is the first full-length study of the organisation. The article unpacks the group’s internal structures and membership, identifies its links with existing Eurosceptic organisations, and analyses the effectiveness of its campaign tactics. WACM campaigners deployed traditional categories, such as ‘housewife’, but the fact that women were important consumers gave them crucial licence to speak about all variety of political issues, including trade policy, international relations, and democracy itself.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1. ‘Housewives: A Vital Factor in Vote’, Airdrie and Coatbridge Advertiser, 5 June 1975.
2. ‘Thorpe to get apology’, Daily Telegraph, 19 February 1972.
3. There is no perfect word to capture opposition to the Common Market. The term ‘Eurosceptic’ did not appear until the late 1970s (an early use: ‘Bonn sees no instant solution to EEC’s problems’, Guardian, 27 June 1978), which is after the period being discussed in this article. Nonetheless, ‘Eurosceptic’ is the term which most recognisably captures the long tradition of opposition to British membership in the organisation created by the Treaty of Rome and its successor treaties. WACM is part of this tradition and, therefore, ‘Eurosceptic’ will be used interchangeably with the more temporally bound term ‘anti-Marketeer’.
4. See Goodrich (1975: 231), Zakheim (1972: 206).
5. ’95% give massive no to Market’, Nottingham Evening Post, 18 June 1971; ‘Anti-Market MPs out of step’, Coventry Evening Telegraph, 5 November 1971.
6. ‘The Verdict: Prices, Wages, Home’, Liverpool Echo, 1 March 1974.
7. Saunders Citation2018, 186.
8. ‘Food would be dear’, Liverpool Echo, 15 February 1975.
9. Margaret Thatcher, ‘Europe: The Choice Before Us’, Daily Telegraph, 4 June 1975.
10. ‘Pro and anti-Market factions wage a shopping basket war’, Guardian, 30 May 1975.
11. The one exception in the archives of the National Referendum Campaign is a broadcast on BBC Wales, featuring Ann Clwyd (NPC/1–2).
12. ‘Benn and EEC’, Daily Telegraph, 29 May 1975.
13. Butler & Kitzinger Citation1976, 249.
14. ‘Goodbye Annie, We Shall Miss You’, Chatham News, 8 October 1971.
15. ‘Whacking Opposition to Six Entry’, Guardian, 28 November 1970.
16. Saunders Citation2018, 207.
17. Brandreth Citation2009, 318.
18. Moores Citation2014, 205.
19. Richard Johnson, ‘Remembering Anne Kerr: Labour’s Forgotten Firebrand’, Tribune, 19 November 2021.
20. Roberts Citation2018.
21. See, for example, ‘Woman MP Tells of Mace Attack at Riot Trial in Chicago, Camden Courier-Post, 10 December 1969; ‘Mrs Kerr testifies in trial’, Johnson City Press, 10 December 1969; ‘Singer Tells of Mace in Face at Riot’, Dayton Daily News, 10 December 1969; ‘Briton Gives Light Touch to Trial of Chicago 7’, Corpus Christi Times, 10 December 1969; ‘Parliament Member Got Mace in Face When Singing We Shall Overcome’, Princeton Daily Clarion, 10 December 1969; ‘Lady Member of Parliament Says She Was Maced’, Lexington Leader, 10 December 1969. Her fame extended to Canada, too: ‘Touch of English Charm Amuses Trial of Chicago 7’, Vancouver Sun, 10 December 1969.
22. Roberts Citation2018: 62, 48.
23. ‘No room in the House’, Observer, 20 December 1964.
24. ‘MP wants a caravan at the House’, Guardian, 7 December 1964.
25. ‘Ban These Toys, Says Woman MP’, Nottingham Evening Post, 22 December 1966.
26. HC Deb 13 July 1967 vol 750 col 1385.
27. Letter from Anne Kerr to Queen Elizabeth II, 21 October 1969 (DMK/2/15).
28. ‘Cabinet Shilly-Shally’, Daily Telegraph, 20 February 1970.
29. Taverne and Kerr had history. In 1959, he had defeated her in a parliamentary selection contest. ‘It was slightly rigged against her’, Taverne told this author. ‘They wanted a Gaitskellite. And they didn’t like the idea of being presented with a far-lefty’ (Author interview with Dick Taverne, 10 March 2023).
30. HC Deb 19 February 1970 vol 796 col 668.
31. HC Deb 24 February 1970 vol 796 col 996–1162.
32. HC Deb 26 February 1970 vol 796.
33. HC Deb 24 February 1970 vol 796 col 1128.
34. Bennett Citation2018, 266. See also Letter from Christopher Frere-Smith to Anne Kerr, 30 March 1971 (DMK/2/11).
35. ‘No flying feathers as women join battle’, Daily Telegraph, 6 June 1970.
36. Bennett Citation2018, 266.
37. ‘Britain’s female politicians win some, lose some’, Saskatoon Star-Phoenix, 22 June 1970.
38. Hilton et al Citation2012, 347.
39. Letter from Anne Kerr to Michael King, 27 October 1970 (DMK/3/3).
40. ‘The Woman with Food for Thought’, Birmingham Post, 15 March 1971.
41. ‘British objectors storm a field forever foreign’, Guardian, 9 November 1970.
42. Butler & Kitzinger Citation1996, 98.
43. Will Radford, ‘Obituary: Christopher Frere-Smith’, Old Suttonian, August 2017.
44. Will Radford, ‘Obituary: Christopher Frere-Smith’, Old Suttonian, August 2017.
45. ‘Echec du débarquement anglais à Calais’, Nord Littoral, 18 April 1972.
46. Minutes of WACM Committee, 16 November 1970 (DMK/2/2).
47. ‘The women with food for thought’, Birmingham Post, 15 March 1971.
48. Hilton et al Citation2012, 354.
49. Letter from Nora [Berry] to Anne Kerr, 24 May 1971 (DMK/2/3).
50. List of Constituencies where Anne Kerr was nominated as a candidate for the next general election (DMK/3/3).
51. Letter from Anne Kerr to E Thorne, 3 November 1971 (DMK/3/3).
52. ‘Goodbye Annie, We Shall Miss You’, Chatham News, 8 October 1971.
53. Letter from Nora [Berry] to Anne Kerr, 24 May 1971 (DMK/2/3).
54. Butler & Kitzinger Citation1976.
55. Letter from Women Against the Common Market to Uwe Kitzinger, 30 July 1975 (NPC/1–2, Papers of the National Referendum Campaign, Parliamentary Archives, House of Lords)
56. Letter from Anne Kerr to Harold Wilson, 30 March 1971 (DMK/2/29).
57. Letter from Nora [Berry] to Anne Kerr, 24 May 1971 (DMK/2/3).
58. ‘Cassandra Left £24,235 Estate’, Liverpool Echo, 16 June 1967.
59. Minutes of WACM Committee, 24 November 1970 (DMK/2/2).
60. Ibid.
61. Minutes of WACM Committee, 31 March 1971 (DMK/2/2).
62. Minutes of WACM Committee, 9 August 1971 (DMK/2/2). Examples: ‘Threat’, Aberdeen Press and Journal, 28 November 1970, p1; ‘The Women With Food For Thought’, Birmingham Post, 15 March 1971, p6; ‘Anti-Market Campaign Begins in Bham’, Birmingham Evening Mail, 12 June 1971, p5; ‘Present Yourselves!’, Coventry Evening Telegraph, 16 June 1971; ‘Women Launch Market Battle’, Manchester Express [nd, c. June 1971]; ‘Charade Sell-Out Says Anti Brigade’, Hull Daily Mail, 23 June 1971, p1; ‘Market Deal Is Signal for a Big Campaign’, Stoke-on-Trent Evening Sentinel, 23 June 1971
63. In contrast, the pro-EEC Labour MP Betty Boothroyd did visit women in factories to persuade them to support the European cause (Saunders Citation2018).
64. Minutes of WACM Committee, 24 November 1970 (DMK/2/2).
65. Hoskyns Citation1996, 31.
66. ‘Anti-marketeers rally today’, The Observer, 26 August 1962.
67. Letter from Christopher Frere-Smith to Anne Kerr, 18 November 1970 (DMK/2/11); ‘Mr John Paul’, Telegraph, 7 June 1969.
68. Letter from Christopher Frere-Smith to Anne Kerr, 18 November 1970 (DMK/2/11).
69. Hinton Citation1994.
70. Hilton et al Citation2012.
71. Anne Kerr’s notes of a phone conversation with Ralph Miliband [undated] (DMK/2/9); Letter from George Caitlin to Anne Kerr, 22 November 1970 (DMK/2/4).
72. ‘Women Oppose Entry to Market’, Guardian, 30 June 1971.
73. Letter from Nora [Berry] to Anne Kerr, 24 May 1971 (DMK/2/3).
74. See Johnson (Citation2022).
75. Letter from Freda Niyogi to Anne Kerr, 1971 (DMK/2/3).
76. ‘Items of interest for Keep Britain Out Committee Meeting’, 17 December 1970 (DMK/2/29).
77. Richardson Citation2013.
78. Mischi Citation2006, 83.
79. Minutes of WACM Committee, 4 December 1970 (DMK/2/2).
80. Minutes of WACM Committee, 4 December 1970 (DMK/2/2).
81. Letter from Nora [Berry] to Anne Kerr, 24 May 1971 (DMK/2/3). Kerr wrote in the margins, ‘We do’.
82. Letter from John Gollan to Anne Kerr, 2 June 1971 (DMK/2/4).
83. Minutes of WACM Committee, 24 November 1970 (DMK/2/2).
84. Saunders Citation2018, 191.
85. Saunders Citation2018, 198.
86. ‘Rippon faces up to angry MPs’, Newcastle Journal, 18 May 1971; ‘Sugar Guarantees Worthless’, Guardian, 26 May 1971; ‘Wilson says Labour will renegotiate or quit’, Guardian, 29 October 1971; ‘Food for thought on the Common Market’, Birmingham Post, 6 January 1975.
87. Trentmann Citation2008, 235.
88. ‘SOS from WACM’, Leaflet by Women Against the Common Market (DMK/2/14).
89. ‘Horse Meat on Sunday in the Six’, Express, June 1971; ‘Women oppose entry to Market’, Guardian, 30 June 1971.
90. ‘Women Launch Market Battle’, Manchester Express, June 1971.
91. Women Oppose Entry to Market’, Guardian, 30 June 1971.
92. Trentman 2008, 98.
93. MacDonald Citation1910, 5–6.
94. ‘Whacking Opposition to Six Entry’, Guardian, 28 November 1970.
95. Saunders Citation2020, Citation1142.
96. DMK/2/37.
97. DMK/2/14.
98. ‘Women oppose entry to Market’, 30 June 1971.
99. Letter from Anne Kerr to W G Barnes, 13 March 1972 (DMK/2/4).
100. Beaumont Citation2013, 3.
101. ‘SOS from WACM’, Leaflet by Women Against the Common Market (DMK/2/14).
102. ‘Whacking Opposition to Six Entry’, Guardian, 28 November 1970.
103. Minutes of WACM Committee, 24 November 1970 (DMK/2/2).
104. ‘Horse Meat on Sunday in the Six’, Express, June 1971.
105. Letter from Anne Kerr to Wyn Knowles, 3 February 1972 (DMK/2/31).
106. Minutes of WACM Committee, 9 August 1971 (DMK/2/2).
107. Letter from Katherine Williamson to Anne Kerr, 5 October 1971 (DMK/2/11).
108. Letter from Katherine Williamson to Anne Kerr, [nd, November 1971] (DMK/2/11).
109. Dell Citation2004.
110. My thanks to Gavin Hyman for suggesting this interpretation to me.
111. ‘Letter from Anne Kerr to Harold Wilson’, 30 March 1971 (DMK/2/29).
112. ‘British Reds Spur Anti-American Campaign’, Portland Press Herald, 1 May 1965.
113. Letter from Peggy Duff to Noam Chomsky, 24 November 1969 (Papers of ICDP, Modern Records Centre, Warwick University, MSS 181/16/90).
114. ‘Top Tory Councillor Sees Mr Wilson’, Harrow Observer, 28 May 1971.
115. ‘The women with food for thought’, Birmingham Post, 15 March 1971.
116. Minutes of WACM Committee, 19 April 1972 (DMK/2/2).
117. Letter from Nora [Berry] to Anne Kerr, 24 May 1971 (DMK/2/3).
118. Minutes of WACM Committee, 19 October 1971 (DMK/2/2).
119. Minutes of WACM Committee, 24 November 1970 (DMK/2/2).
120. Saunders Citation2018, 188.
121. ‘Six protest rally’, Birmingham Post, 15 March 1971.
122. ‘Shore calls EEC terms of entry a surrender’, Guardian, 15 March 1971.
123. Minutes of WACM Committee, 24 February 1971 (DMK/2/2).
124. ‘Shore calls EEC terms of entry a surrender’, Guardian, 15 March 1971.
125. Ibid.
126. Ibid.
127. Ibid.
128. Minutes of WACM Committee, 8 March 1971 (DMK/2/2).
129. Minutes of WACM Committee, 17 March 1971 (DMK/2/2).
130. Minutes of WACM Committee, 31 March 1971 (DMK/2/2).
131. Minutes of WACM Committee, 19 May 1971 (DMK/2/2).
132. Letter from Nora [Berry] to Anne Kerr, 24 May 1971 (DMK/2/3).
133. Minutes of WACM Committee, 31 March 1971 (DMK/2/2).
134. ‘Deux cent treize contestaires anglaise n’ont pu débarquer à Calais de « L’Invicta »’, La Voix du Nord, 18 April 1972.
135. ‘Anti-Market Britons in Calais Battle’, Daily Telegraph, 17 April 1972.
136. ‘Echec du débaqrquement anglaise à Calais’, Nord Littoral, 18 April 1972.
137. Letter from Bernard Partridge to WACM Committee, 19 April 1972 (DMK/2/11).
138. Letter from Bernard Partridge to WACM Committee, 19 April 1972 (DMK/2/11).
139. ‘Echec du débarquement anglaise à Calais’, Nord Littoral, 18 April 1972.
140. Letter from Anne Kerr to Miss Wolf, 1 May 1972 (DMK/2/7).
141. ‘Deux cent treize contestaires anglaise n’ont pu débarquer à Calais de « L’Invicta »’, La Voix du Nord, 18 April 1972.
142. ‘Deux cent treize contestaires anglaise n’ont pu débarquer à Calais de « L’Invicta »’, La Voix du Nord, 18 April 1972.
143. ‘Anti-Market Britons in Calais Battle’, Daily Telegraph, 17 April 1972.
144. Letter from Bernard Partridge to WACM Committee, 19 April 1972 (DMK/2/11).
145. Letter from Charles Delpierre to Anne Kerr, 16 April 1972 (DMK/2/11).
146. Original text: ‘J’ai été pris en photo avec votre sac sur lequel écrit « No Common Market ». Pouvez vous m’envoyer une de ces photos et à l’avance merci’ (Letter from Charles Delpierre to Anne Kerr, 16 April 1972 (DMK/2/11)).
147. Letter from Anne Kerr to JSA Selwyn, 24 April 1972 (DMK/2/11).
148. Goodrich 1975, 153.
149. See Hinton (Citation1994), Zweiniger-Bargielowska (Citation1994, 1996), Pugh (Citation2014, 242).
150. Robbins Citation1979, 108.
151. Letter from Christopher Frere-Smith to Anne Kerr, 18 November 1970 (DMK/2/11).
152. Letter from Christopher Frere-Smith to Anne Kerr, 18 November 1970 (DMK/2/11).
153. Letter from Nora [Berry] to Anne Kerr, 24 May 1971 (DMK/2/3).
154. ‘Whacking Opposition to Six Entry’, Guardian, 28 November 1970.
155. Letter from Christine Verity to Anne Kerr, 14 December 1970 (DMK/2/31).
156. Richardson Citation2013, 174.
157. Minutes of WACM Committee, 24 November 1970 (DMK/2/2).
158. ‘The Women with Food for Thought’, Birmingham Post, 15 March 1971.
159. Undated speech notes by Anne Kerr (DMK/2/36).
160. Minutes of WACM Committee, 31 March 1971 (DMK/2/2).
161. Letter from Joy Attfield to Anne Kerr, 12 July 1971 (DMK/2/4).
162. Morning Star, 9 June 1971.
163. ‘Norway decision a defeat for unit’, Birmingham Post, 27 September 1972.
164. Heath Citation1998, 394.
165. ‘Anne Kerr died of drink poisoning’, Daily Telegraph, 9 August 1973.
166. Ibid.
167. Beaumont Citation2013, 217.
168. Love Citation2019.
169. My thanks to Lyndsey Jenkins for this point. See Reeves (Citation2019, 145).
170. ‘Goodbye Annie, We Shall Miss You’, Chatham News, 8 October 1971.