What it takes to recognise a new government? India’s diplomatic recognition and understanding of Castro’s Cuba

ABSTRACT

Despite an increased interest in the diplomatic history of India – chiefly supplemented by the opening up of Indian diplomatic records – the Latin American region has received marginal attention. Interestingly, the archival sources based in India throw an altogether fresh perspective on diplomatic engagements between India and Latin America during the Cold War period. This Research Note places the Cuban Revolution in perspective to examine how developments in Cuba kept Indian diplomats and leaders engrossed. Through India’s understanding of Castro’s Cuba, the Note captures ideological and pragmatic considerations defining the responses to each other’s overtures during such an important turn in history.

KEYWORDS:

• India
• Cuba
• Cuban Revolution
• Non-Aligned Movement
• Cold War
• India-Latin America

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Tanya Harmer, Jayita Sarkar and Odd Arne Westad for providing their valuable inputs on the previous versions of this Research Note.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes

¹ Please visit the official portal of National Archives of India (NAI) for more information: https://nationalarchives.nic.in/. Digitised records may be accessed through Abhilekh Patal: https://www.abhilekh-patal.in

² Details of all the research materials and collection of papers are available on the website of the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library (NMML): http://nehrumemorial.nic.in/.

³ Digitised materials can be accessed online through the archive section of Press Information Bureau (PIB): https://archive.pib.gov.in/archive2/.

⁴ A modest attempt was previously made by the author to highlight some of the underappreciated aspects of Indo-Latin American diplomatic engagements emerging out of the declassified records. See: Binay Prasad, ‘Interrogating Latin American Studies through Indian Archives: Charting Diplomatic History and International Relations in Twentieth Century’, Paper delivered at the Congress of Latin American Studies Association (LASA), 24-27 May 2019, Boston, US. Available online: https://www.lasaweb.org/en/publications/papers-past-congresses/.

⁵ ‘Question of Dispatching of goodwill mission to Latin American countries’, Telegram, 31 December 1946, Embassy of India (E/I) Washington, DC, to Ministry of External Affairs (MEA), File No: 29(2)-X/47, MEA, Delhi, National Archives of India (NAI), Delhi. Available online: https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org (accessed 5 October 2022).

⁶ James G. Hershberg and Christian F. Ostermann, eds., The Global Cuban Missile Crisis at 50: New Evidence from Behind the Iron, Bamboo and Sugarcane Curtains, and Beyond, CWIHP Bulletin, Issue No 17/18, (Washington, DC: Wilson Center, Fall 2012).

⁷ The works of Piero Gleijeses on Cuba, as well as new diplomatic histories, including studies by Rafael Pedemonte on students, and A.E. Gorsuch on cultural diplomacy, follow that research trajectory.

⁸ For a study of more histories of Latin America’s relationship with the so-called Third World during the Cold War, see: Stella Krepp, Thomas Field and Vanni Pettinà, eds., Latin America and the Global Cold War (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2020).

⁹ After the onset of the Cold War many post-colonial regimes that emerged out of revolution witnessed their recognition impinged deeply upon Cold War politics. This can be clearly assessed in Portuguese Africa.

¹⁰ ‘Question of Dispatching of Goodwill Mission to Latin American Countries’, Telegram from Washington, DC, to Delhi, 31 December 1946, File No: 29(2)-X/47, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi. Available online: https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/ (accessed 5 October 2022).

¹¹ MEA Note, D.2123/54-AMS, ‘Diplomatic Relations with Cuba’, File no. S/52/1721/78 Secret, NAI, Delhi.

¹² Ibid.

¹³ Letter of Nehru to MEA, ‘Exchange of Diplomatic relations between India and Cuba’, File no. 2(4)/60, President’s Secretariat, Government of India, NAI, Delhi.

¹⁴ Report-March April 1955, D.927-AAC/55, File no. 1(2)-AAC/55, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

¹⁵ See: ‘Supreme Prosecutor’ and ‘My Historic Duty’ in Jon Lee Anderson, Che Guevara: a revolutionary life (New York: Grove Press, 1997). Also see: Michelle Getchell, ‘Cuba, the USSR, and the Non-Aligned Movement’ and Eric Gettig, ‘Cuba, the United States, and the Uses of the Third World Project, 1959-1967’ in Krepp, Field and Pettinà eds., Latin America and the Global Cold War.

¹⁶ R Tandon, ‘Note on Cuba’, E/I Washington, DC, SS.29/1, File no. 21(2) AMS/60, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

¹⁷ The 26th July Movement (26JM) was a leading organisation under the leadership of Fidel Castro which led the Cuban Revolution. The Popular Socialist Party (PSP) was the communist party of Cuba founded in 1925. Both 26JM and PSP played a formidable role in the establishment of revolutionary government in Cuba and were subsumed into the subsequently formed Communist Party of Cuba.

¹⁸ ‘Communique to All Missions and Posts abroad’, 20 January 1959, File no. 21(1)-AMS/59 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

¹⁹ Note from Ministry of State (Cuba), ‘Exchange of Diplomatic relations between India and Cuba’, File no. 2(4)/60, President’s Secretariat, Government of India, NAI, Delhi.

²⁰ See: ‘My Historic Duty’ in Anderson, Che Guevara: a revolutionary life.

²¹ As stated earlier in the Research Note, Cuba was fairly quick in finalising its ambassador-designate way back in December 1958, but some records point to the fact that from the Cuban side as well, it was still operating with a Minister before presentation of credentials from both the sides in 1960.

²² Such an understanding has been developed from the correspondences between US missions in Cuba and the US Department of State [Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958–1960, Cuba. Available online: https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments (accessed 4 October 2022)]. In addition, historians, namely Renata Keller and Piero Gleijeses, are also of the view that the US initially was willing to recognise the Castro government, but subsequent developments hurting US business interests brought more clarity on the ideological bent of the new regime.

²³ Note from Ministry of State, Republic of Cuba to E/I Washington, DC, Reference no. Conc.76 (20)/58 and Telegram from E/I, Buenos Aires to Foreign, Delhi, 17 January 1959, File No. 21(1) AMS/59 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

²⁴ Letter from M C Chagla, Indian Ambassador to the United States, to S Dutt, Foreign Secretary, MEA, Letter no. 20-A/60 Secret, 1 February 1960, File no.21(2) AMS/60, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

²⁵ ‘Extracts from monthly political report from the Embassy of India, Rio de Janeiro, for the month of January, 1959’, M K Kirpalani, Indian Ambassador in Brazil to MEA, Dy. No. 1041-AMS/59, (Compiled in) File no. 21(1) AMS/59 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

²⁶ B R Basu, ‘Political Development in Cuba’, 24 September 1959, Historical Division, MEA, Reference no. R.6701/AMS/59, File no. 21(1)-AMS/59, Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

²⁷ Telegram from Sethi, MEA to E/I, Washington, DC, 13 January 1959, File no. 21(1)-AMS/59, Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

²⁸ S Dutt, MEA Note- Secret (Immediate), 12 January 1959, File no. 21(1) AMS/1959 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

²⁹ ‘Monthly Political Report- Political Situation in Cuba’, Dy.No.1163-AMS/59, File No. 21(1) AMS/59 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

³⁰ Kate Doyle, ‘Double Dealing: Mexico’s Foreign Policy Toward Cuba’, 2 March 2003. Available online: https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB83/index.htm (accessed 8 October 2022).

³¹ Note from Shiam Sunder Nath, Under Secretary, MEA, 17 January 1959, Dy. No.403-AMS/59, File no. 21(1)-AMS/59 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

³² Letter from S Dutt, Foreign Secretary, MEA to E/I, Washington, DC, 23 July 1959, File no. 21(4) AMS/58 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

³³ See: ‘My Historic Duty’ in Jon Lee Anderson, Che Guevara: a revolutionary life.

³⁴ ‘Visit to India of Commander Ernesto Guevara of Cuba (30-06-59 to 4-7-59)’, File no. 21(3) AMS/59 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

³⁵ ‘Cuban Delegation calls on Planning Commission’, 17.1, PIB Note, 2 July 1959, PIB, Delhi.

³⁶ ‘Cuban Leader Visits National Physical Laboratory’, 21.9, PIB Note, 2 July 1959, PIB, Delhi.

³⁷ See: ‘My Historic Duty’ in Jon Lee Anderson, Che Guevara: a revolutionary life.

³⁸ ‘Letter from Guevara to Nehru’, 12 July 1959, File no. 21(3)-AMS/59, MEA, Selected Works of Jawaharlal Nehru, Series 2, Vol.50. July 1959. Available online: https://nehruselectedworks.com (accessed 10 October 2022).

³⁹ P N Haksar’s Note, dated 11 March 1960, to the Secretary of President, Government of India informed of the decision to ‘raise the status of diplomatic Missions exchanged between India and Cuba to the level of Embassies’.

⁴⁰ See: ‘My Historic Duty’ in Jon Lee Anderson, Che Guevara: a revolutionary life.

⁴¹ ‘Extracts from Fortnightly Political Report’ E/I, Washington, DC, August 16-31, 1959, File No. 21(1) AMS/59 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

⁴² Ibid.

⁴³ M K Kirpalani to MEA, ‘Extracts from Political Report from E/I, Rio de Janeiro, May 1959, Reference no. D-3743-AMS/59 Secret, File no. 21(1) AMS/59 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

⁴⁴ Note of N Krishnan (Charge d’ Affaires) to MEA, ‘Extracts from Political Report E/I, Buenos Aires’ May 1959, Reference no. D.3862- AMS/59 Secret, File no. 21(1) AMS/59 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

⁴⁵ Ibid.

⁴⁶ M C Chagla, Indian Ambassador to US to S Dutt, Foreign Secretary, MEA, Letter no. 20-A/60 Secret, 1 February 1960, File no.21(2) AMS/60, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

⁴⁷ James G. Hershberg, ‘New Russian Evidence on Soviet-Cuban Relations, 1960-61: When Nikita Met Fidel, the Bay of Pigs, and Assassination Plotting’, CWIHP Working Paper #90, (Washington, DC: Wilson Center, February 2019).

⁴⁸ Ibid.

⁴⁹ Ibid.

⁵⁰ R Tandon, Second Secretary, E/I, Washington, DC, ‘Note on Cuba’, SS.29/1, File no. 21(2) AMS/60, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

⁵¹ D N Chatterjee, Minister, ‘Extracts from Fortnightly Political Report’, August 16-31, 1959 E/I, Washington, DC, File No. 21(1) AMS/59 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

⁵² M C Chagla, E/I Washington, DC to J.L. Nehru, Letter no. No.154-A/60 Secret, 6 September 1960, File no. 21(2) AMS/60 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

⁵³ R Tandon to S Dutt, ‘Note on Cuba’, File no. 21(2) AMS/60, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi

⁵⁴ For more details on Castro’s visit see: Simon Hall, Ten Days in Harlem: Fidel Castro and the Making of the 1960s (London: Faber & Faber, 2020).

⁵⁵ ‘Need to Check Current Trends Stressed. Mr Nehru’s talks with Cuban Premier’, 29 September 1960, Times of India.

⁵⁶ Please see: K Natwar Singh, Walking With Lions: Tales from a Diplomatic Past (India: Harper Collins Publishers, 2013), 145-6.

⁵⁷ The R Narayanan’s article ‘India and Latin America’, International Studies, Volume 17(3-4), 1 July 1978 makes a claim that Nehru declined Castro’s invitation to visit Havana during the personal interaction in June 1960 [to be correctly read as September 1960] citing his busy schedule. Narayanan has drawn such a conclusion presumably referring to the newspaper article published by The Hindu, 29 September 1960. In the said context, many other newspapers also captured this historic meeting, however, while making a reference to Times of India, 29 September 1960, the author did not find any correlation if Nehru was making a reference to his busy schedule to decline Castro’s invitation. In fact, Times of India does not even indicate that any form of invitation was extended, however, the statement of Nehru ‘I have plenty of work in my own country’ is mentioned.

⁵⁸ As Nehru visited Mexico in 1961 while conceding to a long pending invitation, therefore, it wasn’t much of an issue to undertake a visit to Cuba on the side, if there was no political baggage attached to such a gesture. Variably, the decision to visit Mexico was suggested by Chester Bowles, US Under Secretary of the State to Nehru in Delhi, whose details can be found in the ‘Memorandum of Conversation between Chester Bowles and Nehru’, August 8 and 9, 1961, Document no. 35, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, Volume XIX, South Asia. Available online: https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v19/d35 (accessed 7 October 2022).

⁵⁹ See: R Narayanan’s article ‘India and Latin America’, International Studies, 17(3-4), 1 July 1978.

⁶⁰ British High Commissioner in Delhi to Commonwealth Relations Office, London, ‘Communication between High Commissioner and Mr Nehru about his visit to New York’, United Nations Department, UN 22912/141/, Telegram no. 1656 Secret, 14 October 1960, The National Archives of the UK (TNA), Kew (document obtained by Simon Hall).

⁶¹ Ibid.

⁶² ‘Prime Minister’s Nehru’s Television Interview in New York’, 26 October 1960, XP Division, MEA, Delhi, PIB, Delhi.

⁶³ Ibid.

⁶⁴ Prime Minister’s Statement in Lok Sabha. On Situation in Cuba, [Lower House of Parliament of India], 21 April 1961, Press Relations Section, MEA, PIB, Delhi.

⁶⁵ Prime Minister’s Statement on the Congo and Cuba in the Rajya Sabha [Upper House of Parliament of India], 20 April 1961, Press Relations Section, MEA, Delhi, PIB, Delhi.

⁶⁶ Prime Minister’s Statement in Lok Sabha. On Situation in Cuba, [Lower House of Parliament of India], 21 April 1961, Press Relations Section, MEA, PIB, Delhi.

⁶⁷ See: M C Chagla, Roses in December: an autobiography (Mumbai: Bhartiya Vidya Bhawan, 2019), 528.

⁶⁸ Ibid.

⁶⁹ The author is, however, not aware of the specific date when it was officially done, but it is certain that in 1962 and later E/I at Mexico City took charge of the affairs in Cuba.

⁷⁰ Please see: Michelle Getchell, ‘Cuba, the USSR, and the Non-Aligned Movement’ and Eric Gettig, ‘Cuba, the United States, and the Uses of the Third World Project, 1959-1967’ in Krepp, Field and Pettinà, eds. Latin America and the Global Cold War, for the Cuban view of the Belgrade Conference, and how it sought to exploit the Summit for advancing its international aspirations in the broader Third World region.

⁷¹ Ibid.

⁷² Such an opinion was also expressed by Josip Broz Tito, President of Yugoslavia, while interacting with the US ambassador George Kennan at Brioni, ‘Memorandum of Conversation between Jozip Broz Tito and George F. Kennan’, 17 July, 1961, Belgrade Conference 7/61-11/61 folder, box WH-25, Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. Papers, John F. Kennedy Library, Boston, MA. Available online: https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/123195 (accessed 6 October 2022).

⁷³ Telegram from E/I, Rio de Janeiro to MEA, D.5597/AMS/61, ‘Conference of non-aligned countries’, File no. 76(15)-AMS/61, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

⁷⁴ Please refer to Vanni Pettinà, ‘Global Horizons: Mexico, the Third World, and the Non-Aligned Movement at the Time of the 1961 Belgrade Conference’, The International History Review 38 no. 4 (2015), 12. Vanni Pettinà also discussed various aspects related to efforts made by the Cuban delegate for ensuring Latin American participation – a set of countries who were already signatories to the US-backed Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (1947).

⁷⁵ Shri C S Jha’s Statement in the Political Committee on Cuba, 14 February 1962, ‘India in the United Nations’, Volume VIII, No.2, Foreign Affairs Record-1962, MEA, Delhi. Available online: https://mealib.nic.in/?pdf2550?000 (accessed 4 October 2022).

⁷⁶ Prime Minister’s Address, State Information Ministers’ Conference, 25 October 1962, PIB, Delhi.

⁷⁷ Letter from S J S Chhattwal to A P Venkateshwaran, 12 December 1962, ‘Reaction in various countries on Chinese aggression against India’, File No. 118(74) - WII/62 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

⁷⁸ Letter from S J S Chhattwal to A Gonsalves, 5 November 1962, China and the Cuban Press, D.O.No. F.6 (3)/ 62, ‘Reaction in various countries on Chinese aggression against India’, File No. 118(74) - WII/62 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

⁷⁹ Letter from S J S Chhattwal to A P Venkateshwaran, 12 December 1962, ‘Reaction in various countries on Chinese aggression against India’, File No. 118(74) - WII/62 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

⁸⁰ Ibid.

⁸¹ Letter from S J S Chhattwal to A Gonsalves, 5 November 1962, D.O.No. F.6 (3)/ 62, E/I, Havana, ‘Reaction in various countries on Chinese aggression against India’, File No. 118(74) - WII/62 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

⁸² Telegram from the Indian Ambassador to Mexico, 12 May 1963, ‘Cuba After the Crisis’, File No: HI/10/2(77)/63, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi. Available online: https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/ (accessed 5 October 2022).

⁸³ Ibid.

⁸⁴ Ibid.

⁸⁵ Ibid.

⁸⁶ Letter from U C Soni to R Tandon, 30 January 1966, E/I, Havana, ‘Sino- Cuban Relations’, File no.WII/104(9)/66 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

⁸⁷ Pardo Llada’s live telephone communication to FIEL Network from Theresa Hotel, ‘Land Reform Topic in Castro-Nehru Talks’, 28 September 1960, Havana, Daily Report, Foreign Radio Broadcasts, 1960, no. 186. Available online: https://babel.hathitrust.org/ (accessed 10 December 2022).

⁸⁸ The author has come across various notes of Indian missions throughout 1940s, 1950s and 1960s that customarily focussed on the same set of points, namely trade, culture, diplomatic presence and promotion of India’s image in LAC.

⁸⁹ Confidential Note, ‘Cuba- Visit to India during 9/7 of Cuban Delegation led by Dr. Pelegrin Torras, Deputy Foreign Minister’, File no. WII/121/40/77 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi. Available online: https://indianculture.gov.in/ (accessed 6 October 2022).

⁹⁰ Bernard Weinraub, Special to the New York Times, ‘Castro Accuses U.S.’, 17 September 1973, New York Times, NYT Archives. Available online: https://www.nytimes.com/1973/09/18/archives/ (accessed 7 October 2022).

⁹¹ ‘First Resident Ambassador of India to Cuba’, 20 November 1973, Press Relations Sections, MEA, PIB, Delhi.

⁹² ‘Cuba- Visit to India during 9/7 of Cuban Delegation led by Dr. Pelegrin Torras, Deputy Foreign Minister’, File no. WII/121/40/77 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi. Available online: https://indianculture.gov.in/ (accessed 6 October 2022).

⁹³ Ibid.

⁹⁴ Letter from Cuban Ministry of External Relations, Havana to Vajpayee, 8 September 1977, File no. WII/121/40/77 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

⁹⁵ Ibid.

⁹⁶ ‘Record of Discussion’, 24 September 1977, File no. WII/121/40/77 Secret, MEA, Delhi, NAI, Delhi.

⁹⁷ K Natwar Singh, Walking With Lions: Tales from a Diplomatic Past (India: Harper Collins Publishers, 2013), 211-5.

⁹⁸ The speech of Fidel Castro can be accessed at the Castro Speech Database, LANIC. Available online: http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/castro/db/1983/19830307.html. Furthermore, the official statement delivered by Prime Minister Gandhi can be accessed through Foreign Affairs Record, Vol. XXIX no. 3, March 1983, MEA, Delhi. Available online: https://mealib.nic.in/?pdf2571?000 .

⁹⁹ The speech of Castro can be accessed at the Castro Speech Database, LANIC. Available online: http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/castro/db/1992/19921229.html (accessed 7 October 2022).

¹⁰⁰ Ibid.

¹⁰¹ ‘Indian attitude on American Intervention in the Dominican Republic’ 1966, File no. WII- 104/33/66, MEA, Delhi NAI, Delhi.

¹⁰² Binay Prasad ‘Carefully Guarded Criticism: India’s position on the 1965 American intervention in the Dominican Republic’, 24 October 2017, Berlin Center for Cold War Studies. Available online: http://www.berlinerkolleg.com/sites/default/files/prasad_criticism_2017_en.pdf (accessed 8 October 2022).