Transmedia learning: a literature review

ABSTRACT

The term transmedia learning is focused on how students learn in both formal and informal learning environments, across multiple platforms. This article identifies the literature on transmedia learning across the last decade and draws together a consistent definition. A conceptual model for transmedia learning is outlined and further advances a way to frame learning across different platforms. Transmedia learning can encourage more collaborative and a more engaged learning environment. Using NVivo12, a grounded theory approach was used as a methodology for the reviewing the literature. The study identified five key areas in transmedia learning – transmedia play, participatory culture, transmedia skills, connectedness and informal learning. The author discusses these findings in relation to higher education and proposes that understanding the process of transmedia learning can help teachers and learning designers integrate learning across platforms more effectively and better engage and connect with students in blended, online and hyflex teaching modes.

KEYWORDS:

• Transmedia learning
• transmedia storytelling
• online learning
• higher education

Introduction

Transmedia learning involves students learning across different platforms, both formally and informally, connecting and collaborating with their peers and teachers. This way of learning has existed for around 12 years and encourages communities of practice. Transmedia learning has evolved from the discipline of transmedia and transmedia storytelling (further defined in this article). In higher education the terminology around ‘transmedia’ for learning is used by multiple authors, with Fleming (2013) describing transmedia learning as

the application of storytelling techniques combined with the use of multiple platforms to create an immersive learning landscape which enables multivarious entry and exit points for learning and teaching. It is the unifying concept of the learning environment that is important since that can become a landscape for learning that has few, if any, boundaries. (p. 371)

Raybourn (2015) researched transmedia learning in the context of the military and noted transmedia learning is ‘the scalable system of messages that represents a narrative or core experience that unfolds from the use of multiple media, emotionally engaging learners by involving them personally in the story’ (p. 9). Tombleson et al. (2016) stated that transmedia learning engages students and encourages them ‘to become active co-creators of knowledge, with each platform making its own unique contribution to the unfolding of the course material’ (p. 342). Transmedia learning has been adopted by academics to support approaches to teaching (Herr-Stephenson et al., 2013; Jenkins, 2010; Kalogeras, 2013; Raybourn, 2018) and as a way to increase transmedia literacy skills in students (Herr-Stephenson et al., 2013; Rodrigues & Bidarra, 2016; Scolari et al., 2018; Sutherland, 2014; Wiklund-Engblom et al., 2013). The foundations for transmedia learning lie in a constructivist democratic learning space that supports student-centred learning and ‘resists traditional norms of authority and the notion that the teacher is a knowledge-broker’ (Sargent & Lynch, 2021, p. 695).

The significance of understanding the rhetoric around transmedia learning has never been more critical for higher education. The effectiveness and engagement of online learning has been a focus since early 2020 when the global pandemic, the Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) emerged and forced many universities worldwide to shut their physical campuses. While campuses have reopened, many universities have expanded offerings of face-to-face, blended and online teaching; however, uncertainty still exists for some learners and educators about attending classes in person. While universities have been offering online learning for more than 20 years, not all educators are skilled in teaching online (Lem, 2022; Pongsakdi et al., 2021). The need to upskill higher education academics has been echoed across blogs, the media and academic literature in countries across the world, and educators need to understand ‘appropriate digital pedagogies’ as well as increase their skills in using digital technologies (Pongsakdi et al., 2021, p. 5042). The rush to move face - to - face courses to fully online courses, in a short space of time, highlighted the challenges for instructors. While many issues have been ironed out across the last three years of the pandemic, it’s clear there is still a gap when it comes to online student engagement (Bone, 2021; Perrotta, 2020). Face-to-face classes have returned, and with them a focus on providing extended learning opportunities in the way of blended learning or hyflex models. Hrastinski (2019) discussed the complex meaning of blended learning that has ‘become an umbrella term that describes the use of technology in education’ – online, or in the classroom (p. 568). Similarly, hyflex could be considered a type of blended learning. Hyflex, a portmanteau of hybrid and flexible, consists of ‘blending online student attendance and face to face student attendance in a single course’ (Miller et al., 2021, p. 1). Significantly, while current online approaches to learning employ successful constructivist and connectivist pedagogical approaches, a transmedia learning approach focuses not only on ‘how students learn’ but also ‘how students connect and build communities’ across platforms (as opposed to a focus on a single platform) in online, blended, hyflex and face-to-face teaching.

In this study, the definitions surrounding transmedia learning will first be discussed to fully understand the concept and its historical path. This article contributes to a growing body of literature on transmedia learning and for educators wanting to use transmedia learning as a teaching method. Herr-Stephenson et al. (2013) showed the pedagogical potential of a transmedia model and called for more empirical research to support their findings. Similarly, Rodrigues and Bidarra (2016) noted that transmedia learning as a concept was still in its infancy, but gaining ground with few cases of transmedia learning used as a strategy to evaluate its effectiveness. This sentiment is echoed by Raybourn (2014), Rodrigues and Bidarra (2016), and Scolari et al. (2018), who identify the lack of research in understanding the concept of connectedness and informal learning strategies. Teske and Horstman (2012) and Tombleson et al. (2016) noted the need to further explore the restraints for using transmedia learning in formal learning environments. The concept continues to evolve, alongside our understanding of technology-enhanced learning, open learning and the ability of online platforms to provide richer learning experiences.

Methodology

This article draws together key terms and models used around transmedia learning and transmedia storytelling across the last 12 years to conceptualise the learning process across different teaching settings and modes.

The aim of this article is to provide a clear understanding of what transmedia learning is from the perspective of the key scholars in this field (Jenkins, 2010; Raybourn, 2018; Rodrigues & Bidarra, 2016; Scolari et al., 2018), identify the current models in use and propose a conceptual model, based on the expanding literature. This adds to a growing body of evidence that suggests transmedia learning enhances student learning through engagement, connectedness and improves transmedia learner knowledge.

The following questions are considered in the context of this article and have contributed to the conceptual model:

RQ1:

What key themes exist in transmedia learning literature?

RQ2:

What models are being used in transmedia learning?

Method

This article is a review of peer-reviewed literature on transmedia learning across 2010–2023. The purpose of this literature review is to understand the key terms used by scholars in this discipline – key themes around the topic and models that have been used in order to answer the research questions. Following a constructivist approach that is the foundation of transmedia learning, this article used Charmaz’s (2012) grounded theory approach to analysing the literature. Constructivism is a theoretical approach that is often used with qualitative research as it states ‘individuals seek understanding of the world in which they live and work’ and ‘meanings are varied and multiple, leading the researcher to look for the complexity of views rather than narrowing meanings into a few categories or ideas’ (Creswell, 2014, p. 37). This theory of constructivist grounded theory allows the data and researcher to have a relationship and understands there is an interplay between the two (Creswell, 2014). In grounded theory, analysis is constructed from the ground up, so this study begins with the selected analysis of literature, initial coding of data and then refocused coding and categorisation according to initial coding to build a conceptual model of transmedia learning.

The research followed an iterative and integrated approach to the literature review (El Hussein et al., 2017) and drew out key themes and assigned classifications to determine the most relevant concepts related to transmedia learning. NVivo12, a qualitative data analysis program, was used to code emerging themes based on the literature review. A frequent word query was run to look at the top 50 terms throughout the papers, and key themes were then linked to the overarching themes to understand the relationships between the studies.

Defining transmedia learning

The concept of transmedia dates back to Marsha Kinder (1993), who referred to ‘transmedia’ as a way in which narrative and non-narrative media were communicated across multiple platforms. Following this initial conceptualisation, the term ‘transmedia storytelling’ was further developed by Henry Jenkins (2006) in Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide. Jenkins defines transmedia storytelling as:

a process where integral elements of a fiction get dispersed systematically across multiple delivery channels for the purpose of creating a unified and coordinated entertainment experience. Ideally, each medium makes its own unique contribution to the unfolding of the story. (Jenkins, 2010, p. 944)

The concept of transmedia learning comes from ‘transmedia storytelling’ which was initially applied in a film and television context; however, since then several scholars have extended Jenkins’ definition and related transmedia to their own fields. Edwards (2012) used the term ‘transmedia’ in a media theory context and labelled it multi-platform storytelling, applying the concept to coordinated communication across different media. Bourdaa et al. (2016) identified cultural changes that have occurred as a result of social technology, i.e. increased participatory culture as a result of the internet, that have made it easier for transmedia storytelling to evolve. Transmedia learning would not be possible in its current form without the use of these platforms, and the learning environment in this context is somewhat reliant on the technology available (for example social media). Transmedia learning can be considered the holistic approach to cross-platform education and builds on concepts like digital storytelling, teaching across social media, online learning and technology-enhanced learning. It is not one iteration of these concepts, but rather a strategic approach to connect with students across different platforms and is focused on learning but also transmedia literacy. Key elements of this style of learning allow students to delve deeper into content, where and when they want (Rose, 2012).

Transmedia learning as a way to engage with learners is a new field that is evolving quickly with the greater use of digital tools and platforms, but a tested model is yet to be developed. Extant scholarly literature in relation to transmedia learning remains minimal, although some research has been conducted in primary education settings (Herr-Stephenson et al., 2013; Rodrigues & Bidarra, 2016; Wiklund-Engblom et al., 2013), secondary education settings (Fleming, 2013; Taddeo & Tirocchi, 2021) and tertiary educational settings (Dickinson-Delaporte et al., 2018; Kalogeras, 2013; Tombleson et al., 2016). A relevant study into the effectiveness of ‘transmedia storytelling’ in higher education by Warren et al. (2013) identified the need for millennials to be taught greater critical thinking skills and hence proposed to combine formal and informal learning. This was supported by a more recent study (Scolari et al., 2020) that identified ways to improve transmedia literacy and support informal learning. Kalogeras (2013) used Jenkins (2006) to understand how transmedia learning can facilitate student-centred learning in face-to-face, blended and online contexts.

Searching and choosing literature

To search for relevant literature ProQuest, Google Scholar and Scopus were used and looked at scholarly journals and conference papers and proceedings from 2010 to 2023. This literature review is solely focused on the understanding of transmedia learning in a holistic context so excludes papers that have a single transmedia education focus (i.e. gaming) or a focus on a transmedia project. The reason for this is while gaming (for example) may be a transmedia approach to learning, it is a single technique and not ‘learning across platforms’. Hence only articles that consider transmedia learning in an integrated sense have been included. The study also excluded papers that focused solely on ‘transmedia literacy’ from a student learning perspective, that is, transmedia skills gained by students rather than the teaching approach itself. Publications were also excluded if they focused solely on social media for learning, as opposed to transmedia learning or they had a narrow perspective of transmedia learning in a single context that couldn’t give generalisations to the broader concept. Digital learning was not included as it does not imply a holistic approach to learning across platforms, rather just learning digitally which may only be one platform, and not connectivist in approach. Journal articles are the key focus of the study; however, some books, conference papers and presentations have been included where relevant. Following the method of grounded theory (Charmaz, 2012), the researcher has manually selected papers on transmedia learning after reading abstracts to ensure they are focused on the specific topic.

Classification of articles

Purposive sampling was used in determining which articles were most relevant. The time period was set starting from 2010 as this is when the term transmedia learning appeared in peer-reviewed literature in an education context. Changes in technology have developed far too greatly to consider transmedia learning prior to 2010, as social media learning did not exist and is a key part (although not sole) of transmedia learning. Articles were classified according to country, education level, research methodology, transmedia theme and date. This resulted in 38 items for inclusion as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Articles related to transmedia learning from 2010 to 2023.

Study Attributes – Author	Country	Education Level	Methodology	Theme	Year
Edmonds, S	AU	Mixed	Conceptual	Transmedia learning	2010
Pence, Harry E.	US	Tertiary	Conceptual	Transmedia learning	2012
Teske, Paul RJ.; Horstman, Theresa	US	Secondary	Case Study	Transmedia learning	2012
Wiklund-Engblom, Annika; Hiltunen, Kasper; Hartvik, Juha; Porko-Hudd, Mia	Finland	Primary	Conceptual	Transmedia Storytelling	2013
Fleming, Laura	US	Secondary	Case Study	Transmedia learning	2013
Herr-Stephenson, Becky; Alper, Merly; Reilly, Erin	US	Primary	Case Study	Transmedia Literacy	2013
Kalogeras, Stavroula (1)	UK	Tertiary	Case Study	Transmedia learning	2013
Kalogeras, Stavroula (2)	Greece	Tertiary	Conceptual	Transmedia learning	2013
Raybourn, Elaine M. (1)	US	Professional	Conference	Transmedia learning	2013
Scott J. Warren; Jenny S. Wakefield; Leila A. Mills	US	Tertiary	Case Study	Transmedia learning	2013
Ivanova, M; Holotescu, C; Grosseck, G	Bulgaria/ Romania	Primary	Case Study	Transmedia learning	2014
Raybourn, Elaine M (2)	US	Professional	Case Study	Transmedia learning	2014
Reid, James; Gilardi, Filippo	Bogota/Colombia/ Japan	Tertiary	Case Study	Transmedia learning	2013
Rodrigues, Patrícia; Bidarra, José	Portugal	Primary	Case Study	Transmedia learning	2014
Sutherland, Karen; Barker, Richie	AU	Tertiary	Qualitative	Transmedia Literacy	2014
Raybourn, Elaine M (3)	US	Professional	Conference	Transmedia learning	2015
Bidarra, José; Rodrigues, Patricia	Portugal	Primary	Case Study	Transmedia Storytelling	2016
Tombleson, B; Wolf, K; Gallant, L; Archer, C; Desai, R	AU	Tertiary	Qualitative	Transmedia learning	2016
Davis, Susan	AU	Primary	Qualitative	Transmedia learning	2017
Herrmann, A.E; Estrela, Vania.V; Loschi, Hermes.J; Vishnevski, Mikhail.P.	Germany	Tertiary	Conceptual	Transmedia learning	2018
Dickinson-Delaporte, Sonia; Gunness, Aneeshta; McNair, Hamish	AU	Tertiary	Case Study	Transmedia learning	2018
Raybourn, Elaine M (4)	US	Professional	Conference	Transmedia learning	2018
Scolari, Carlos; Masanet, Maria-José; Guerrero-Pico, Mar; Establés, María-José	Spain	Secondary	Mixed Method	Transmedia Literacy	2018
González-Martínez Juan; Esteban-Guitart Moises; Rostan-Sanchez Carles; Serrat-Sellabona Elisabet; Estebanell-Minguell Meritxell	Spain	Tertiary	Qualitative	Transmedia learning and literacy	2019
Masanet, Maria-Jose; Guerrero-Pico, Mar; Estables, Maria-Jose	Spain	Secondary	Case Study	Transmedia learning	2019
Rodriguez, Jose Manuel Corona.	Spain	Mixed	Case study	Transmedia learning	2019
Tsortanidou, Xanthippi; Daradoumis, Thanasis; Barberá, Elena	UK	Tertiary	Case study	Transmedia learning	2019
Esteban-Guitart Moisès; Monreal-Bosch Pilar; Palma Montserrat; González-Ceballos Irene	Spain	Tertiary	Qualitative	Participatory culture	2020
Jesus, M.A.D; Estrela V.V; Mamani W.D.H; Razmjooy, N; Plaza, P; Peixoto A.	Spain	Tertiary	Case study	Transmedia learning	2020
Perry, M.S.	Malaysia	Tertiary	Case study	Transmedia learning (language studies)	2020
Costa-Sánchez & Guerrero-Pico	Spain	Secondary	Qualitative	Transmedia Literacy	2020
Scolari, Carlos	Spain	Mixed	Qualitative	Transmedia Literacy	2020
Sime, Julie-Ann; Themelis, Chryssa	UK	Mixed	Qualitative	Transmedia learning	2020
Taddeo, Gabriella; Tirocchi, Simona	Italy	Secondary	Mixed method	Transmedia Literacy	2021
Runchina, Cinzia; Fauth, Fernanda; Gonzalez-Martinez, Juan	Italy	Secondary	Mixed method	Transmedia learning	2022
Gonzalez-Martinez, Juan	Italy	Mixed	Qualitative	Transmedia learning	2022
Atmaja, PW; Sihananto, AN	Indonesia	Case study	Qualitative	Transmedia learning	2023
Erta-Majo, Arnau; Vaquero, Eduard	Spain	Primary and Secondary	Qualitative	Transmedia education	2023

The initial scan found articles on transmedia learning could be found predominantly in peer-reviewed journals with a focus on the areas of media literacy, computing, education and communication. Of the authors in higher education, discipline areas of the authors focused on defence (Raybourn, 2015), arts, media and film (Davis, 2017; Kalogeras, 2013; Perry, 2020; Taddeo & Tirocchi, 2021), marketing and communication (Dickinson-Delaporte et al., 2018; Rodrigues & Bidarra, 2016; Sutherland, 2014; Tombleson et al., 2016), computing (Herrmann et al., 2018; Ivanova et al., 2014; Warren et al., 2013) and education (Costa-Sánchez & Guerrero-Pico, 2020; Erta-Majó & Vaquero, 2023; González-Martínez et al., 2019; Sime & Themelis, 2020; Tsortanidou et al., 2019). There was a strong preference by the authors to focus on case studies or qualitative studies. The journals can be identified in the following categories:

• Media literacy – Journal of Media Literacy Education, GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies

• Computing – International Journal of Creative Interfaces and Computer Graphics (IJCICG); Journal of Computational Science, Oriental Journal of Computer Science and Technology

• Education – Teaching Education; Journal of Marketing Education; Learning, Media and Technology; Journal of Educational Technology Systems; International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning; International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Education; Research and Development in Higher Education: The Shape of Higher Education; Distance Education, Digital Education Review, Information and Learning Sciences; Contemporary Educational Technology; Social Media and Society.

• Communication – Asia Pacific Public Relations Journal; Information, Communication & Society, Revista Latina de Comunicación Social

• Other – El Profesional de la Información; Training and Development in Australia, Sustainability

Coding of articles

Eighteen articles were from European countries, nine from the USA, five from Australia, three from the UK and three from Asia/South America. To analyse the articles using a grounded theory approach (Charmaz, 2012), line-by-line coding was used to highlight key elements used by scholars to give an overview of the key themes. In line-by-line coding, this is the first stage of coding and is focused on teasing out initial terminology and codes. These are the codes that stand out and are initially used in the research. Axial coding uses these terms and tests the coding against the data and allows for refinement to bring out further the key themes occurring in the data. The process is reiterative and starts again and is used to draw out the larger narrative about what the data is saying. Memoing was used during the process to highlight issues and considerations as a part of the literature review and focused re-coding followed, drawing nodes from NVivo12 together to highlight the core themes discussed in this article.

Results: key themes in transmedia learning

This section seeks to understand the key themes emerging from the literature. Using a grounded theory approach, a key theme can be defined as a code that is deemed significant for the purpose of the study. Some key themes may be made up of sub-themes (for example, participatory culture may include convergence culture and social media as a part of the theme). These themes occurred most frequently within the literature the authors included. Of the articles that were included there were six key themes that emerged. Each element will be discussed in more detail including definitions, and models used in the literature (if any). The key themes and their definitions are summed up in Table 2.

Table 2. Key themes in transmedia learning.

Theme	Definition
(1) Transmedia learning	‘conveying curriculum materials across multiple media platforms to engage students and encourage them to become active co-creators of knowledge, with each platform making its own unique contribution to the unfolding of the course material’ (Tombleson et al., 2016, p. 342)
(2) Transmedia play	Engaging students through play based games, and/or in terms of informal/experimental learning experience from a student perspective (Dickinson-Delaporte et al., 2018; Herr-Stephenson et al., 2013)
(3) Participatory culture	A participatory culture is one that encourages sharing, repurposing and distribution of content through deliberate curation of that community to encourages sharing (Jenkins, 2006)
(4) Transmedia skills	‘a set of skills, practices, values, priorities, sensibilities, and learning/sharing strategies developed and applied in the context of the new participatory cultures’ (Scolari et al., 2018, p. 15)
(5) Connectedness	The level a learner feels between their peers, their transmedia environment, and their educator (Kop, 2011)
(6) Informal learning	Learning that may take place outside of the classroom and involves learning by doing and evaluating (Costa-Sánchez & Guerrero-Pico, 2020; Scolari et al., 2020)

Transmedia learning

In this paragraph, we will consider what transmedia learning means from a learning and teaching perspective. In this article, the term ‘transmedia learning’ will be used in line with the literature (Masanet et al., 2020; Raybourn, 2018; Scolari et al., 2018) and focuses on teaching students across platforms, as well as transmedia literacy which teaches students to produce knowledge across platforms.

While terms like ‘cross-platform’ and ‘multimedia’ and often used in discussions on transmedia learning, these terms are not interchangeable as they point to the delivery mode as opposed to a holistic approach to learning which at its core is ‘immersive, interconnected’ with ‘dynamic narratives’ engaging in ‘textual, visual and media literacies, as well as multiple intelligences’ (Herr-Stephenson et al., 2013, p. 14). Transmedia learning as a descriptor is viewed as the more encompassing, extended teaching model in comparison to the other terms (Jenkins, 2010).

In further defining the term transmedia learning, several authors approach the meaning with a similar understanding. Fleming (2013) used the term in a transmedia storytelling context that considers the element of storytelling in the classroom with ‘the application of storytelling techniques combined with the use of multiple platforms to create an immersive learning landscape’ (p. 371).

Key points in the literature for using a transmedia learning approach to teaching include:

• Student-centred pedagogical approach to education and learners need to accept new approaches to teaching where the educator is not necessarily in a position of power but learning is a democratic process (Kalogeras, 2013).

• Must include various entry points for learning and teaching, i.e. different platforms, accessible (Fleming, 2013).

• Learners construct their own learning using the tools they want, when they want (Fleming, 2013).

• Platforms are used to create a unified experience where no single author has control (Pence, 2011).

Transmedia play

In this paragraph we will consider what transmedia play means in terms of tangible teaching elements. Transmedia play is a theme that occurs in a number of papers (Dickinson-Delaporte et al., 2018; Herr-Stephenson et al., 2013) and is a part of the ‘student-centred social constructivist approach to learning’ (Dickinson-Delaporte et al., 2018, p. 1). According to Herr-Stephenson et al. (2013) there are five key learning areas defined for transmedia play including:

1. Resourcefulness – the ability to be creative in response to a challenge and leverage tools available.

2. Social – a shared digital space where learners can connect.

3. Mobile – meaning mobile technologies (i.e. smartphones, iPads) but also mobile platforms and the ability to move between them.

4. Accessible – in this sense not in terms of equity but rather the ability to join at any time or moment, taking appropriate context from the content.

5. Replayable – a space that can be revisited, explored and even encourage multiple visits as narratives unfold over time.

Within the key papers that discussed this concept, there were conceptual ideas of what makes up transmedia play in addition to the key ideas mentioned above. Key points in the literature for using a transmedia play approach to teaching include:

• Creating, circulating, connecting and collaborating are important elements of participation in transmedia play (Herr-Stephenson et al., 2013).

• A play environment can encourage learning through collaboration – the platform needs an element of informality (Herr-Stephenson et al., 2013).

• Supports constructivist learning goals – if part of constructing knowledge is communicating knowledge, transmedia play encourages this through shareability and connectivity.

A transmedia play approach to learning can build transmedia skills in the process and give learners the ability to read multiple platforms, understand intertextuality, become a creator, remix and repurpose information, and present information in multiple ways (Jenkins, 2010; Pence, 2011).

Participatory culture

In this paragraph we will consider the key elements of participatory culture. Unlike the other key themes discussed in the literature, participatory culture has a strong peer-reviewed model that is used in many different disciplines. The most pervasive and useful model on participatory culture comes from transmedia storytelling scholar Henry Jenkins. Jenkins (2006) defined key elements of participatory culture in transmedia storytelling as having:

• Relatively low barriers to artistic expression and civic engagement; from a teaching perspective, this means the platforms should be accessible and easy for students to use (i.e. a Facebook group in which they can upload distilled information in visual form, like an infographic).

• Strong support for creating and sharing one’s creations with others.

• Informal mentorship whereby experience is passed along to novices (students become ambassadors and own the platforms – they encourage sharing and do so outside of required learning tasks. Students will take on the role as knowledge creators).

• Members believe that their contributions matter (the platforms are used and learners’ comment on each other’s work and sharing).

• Members feel some degree of social connection with one another – they care what other people think about what they have created. (A social element is created so moving beyond learning materials, students share personal narratives in context to learning).

While these elements were created from a transmedia (film) perspective on how to create a participatory environment that encourages sharing, they are prevalent in transmedia literature and can be applied to transmedia learning. Fleming (2013) devised the Transmedia Learning World (or TLW) that focuses on the learner as the creator of said world and is based on Jenkins’s (2010) idea of participatory culture, empowering students to extend their own learning. Taddeo and Tirocchi (2021) used participatory culture as the context in which transmedia literacy operates: transmedia learning and literacy cannot exist without a participatory culture and rely on the creation and shared intelligence process. Erta-Majó and Vaquero (2023) drew on many participatory elements in their study and discussed these from the perspective of sharing experiences, building trust, taking learning beyond the classroom and ultimately students becoming producers of content. The themes in this article link strongly to Jenkins’s principles but never explicitly mention them.

Transmedia skills

In this paragraph we will consider what transmedia skills do learners need in higher education? The majority of transmedia learning scholars appear to be advocates of the style of teaching, believing it creates agile thinkers and ‘memorable learning experiences’ (Raybourn 2014). Most papers highlighted that transmedia learning is focused on both the approach to the teaching and the skills gained by students, so at times, the two are interlinked and difficult to separate. Three different scholars identified transmedia skills in similar ways but with different nuances including:

• Seeking out, evaluating, and integrating information across platforms (Jenkins, 2010, para. 4).

• ‘Playing, performing, appropriating, judging, transmedia navigating, networking, and negotiating’ (Scolari et al., 2018, p. 803).

• ‘Production, risk prevention, performance, social management, individual management, content management, media and technology, ideology and ethics, narrative and aesthetics’ (Taddeo & Tirocchi, 2021, p. 245).

• Creativity that is explicitly taught, and not assumed (Kalogeras, 2013).

Across these studies, there are similar themes of seeking, judging, performing, playing and navigating in transmedia learning. Creativity is a concept often implied in the literature surrounding transmedia skills. Kalogeras (2013) identified the nurturing of creative skills as a key transmedia learning prerequisite. In this hyperconnected world, these skills become important for learners to understand how knowledge is constructed, how it can be reshaped but also in the context of misinformation – how knowledge can be manipulated. It is a skill in analysing both large and small knowledge sources and understanding their use in society.

The idea of this literacy means transmedia learning cannot exist in a vacuum. Instead, it is a symbiotic process of the dispersal of learning material across platforms, the ability to read a ‘transmedia narrative’ (or learning experience) by the learner and also write transmedia narrative – that is, to write across platforms (Jenkins, 2010). In reality, transmedia skills are often learned by osmosis, in an informal learning environment and the spaces they are learned in usually exist outside of formal learning environments (Scolari et al., 2018). Some studies point to the idea of transmedia skills being an essential part of education – at all levels, and therefore should be embedded across learning (Jenkins, 2010; Masanet et al., 2020; Scolari et al., 2018). In one study on teenager habits, many transmedia skills were learned through their peers as a part of the community, but these skills are highly contextualised with teens learning what they are most interested in, through the technology or applications most available and also suitable for the purpose (Masanet et al., 2020).

Connectedness

The concept of connectedness is important to the overall paradigm of transmedia learning. How educators build a ‘story world’ that aims to enhance connections made between the learners, their resources and their instructor is a key theme in many studies. This is based on the underlying premise that transmedia learning can have, as its focus, communication, interaction and engagement with resources, people and technology in almost equal measure (Fleming, 2013; Herr-Stephenson et al., 2013). Sime and Themelis (2020) echoed this sentiment and maintained the online identity of the instructor is as important as the student, in terms of leading and showing, rather than just telling. This is an important element of connectedness as managing identity across platforms is key for building trust in online communities.

‘Collective intelligence’ is considered important in transmedia learning as it replicates the environment in the workplace where it is often not the idea of one, but many (Fleming, 2013). Jenkins (2010) highlighted the term multi-intelligences and it is this term that has been further developed by Jeff Gomez (Staffans, 2017) and coined the ‘collective journey’. Warren et al. (2013) in the Learning and Teaching as Communicative Actions framework focused on learning through social media interactions and shared meaning. This study emphasises collective intelligence, similar to Fleming (2013) and in line with Scolari et al. (2018), who used Bloom’s taxonomy (Gogus, 2012) as a way to instruct students from lower to higher level thinking. The idea of the learner as the teacher and prosumer (a portmanteau of producer and consumer) is an important element in the transmedia learning framework (Scolari et al., 2018). Learning is not a passive activity, and collective intelligence underpins the entire transmedia learning process. A collective approach to communication, and education, can enhance connectedness (Tombleson et al., 2016), and creating learning around this concept may solve some issues with student engagement.

Informal learning

The role of informal learning in the broader education environment is increasingly being studied by several authors (Costa-Sánchez & Guerrero-Pico, 2020; Erta-Majó & Vaquero, 2023; Scolari et al., 2020). Scolari et al. (2020) identified six different informal learning strategies that are used in a transmedia environment. These include learning by doing, problem solving, imitating/simulating, playing, evaluating and teaching. These strategies may reflect and expand on formal teaching, but it is something that is learner driven. Although differentiated by authors, there’s an argument that the theme of ‘transmedia play’ may fit under the broader theme of ‘informal learning’ as the two constructs are similar in their approach to developing transmedia skills. This is scope for future investigation.

Towards a conceptual model

Using the key themes of the papers included in this study, this article can further develop the different models and frameworks that have emerged from the literature. The majority of papers did not include or use a model, rather they looked at single case studies with the aim to provide a holistic view of transmedia learning. Notable exceptions were the Herr-Stephenson et al. (2013), Scolari et al. (2020) and González-Martínez et al. (2019) studies. While most these elements were developed within the context of a child or teen media literacy programme, they have relevance in the overall understanding of transmedia learning. A conceptual model of transmedia learning and the terminology is developed in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Conceptual model of transmedia learning (based on Herr-Stephenson et al., 2013; Jenkins, 2010; Martinez, 2022; Raybourn, 2014; Scolari et al., 2020).

The importance of reception, participation and contribution was highlighted in two studies (Herr-Stephenson et al., 2013; Rodrigues & Bidarra, 2016). These terms bring the focus more to the learner than the environment. Raybourn (2015) used the terms engage, involve, extend, surprise and reward as the key principles of transmedia learning engagement. Drawing on Frank Rose’s (2012) concept of ‘deep media’, that is, the ability to delve into a story at the level of depth that you want, Rodrigues and Bidarra (2016) saw the story world (or learning space) as something that is built upon, with each element adding depth to the learning. Jenkins’s (2010) concept of transmedia learning was used in the Herr-Stephenson et al. (2013) paper which used Jenkins’s principles for transmedia storytelling. These include:

1. Spreadability vs Drillability

2. Continuity vs Multiplicity

3. Immersion vs Extraction

4. World Building

5. Seriality

6. Subjectivity

7. Performance

An important element in the framework of a transmedia learning experience is that the world is ‘designed to be incomplete – the networked culture then interacts socially with this world to create opportunities for exploration, interpretation, and expansion’ (Pence, 2011, p. 135). This highlights the student-centred approach which encourages learners to expand the world, and to become co-authors in the process.

Stepping outside the transmedia framework that many models were based around, Raybourn (2014) adopted the US Army’s Army Learning Model (ALM), which she describes as being underpinned by cognition theory and ‘cognition in the wild’, a form of acquiring knowledge as it happens. This model, while quite different to the foundation of the other transmedia learning models, is similar in its constructivist approach and student-centred focus. At the core of this idea is that learning is happening everywhere and cannot be separated to a single moment (Raybourn, 2015). The goal is to create agile thinkers with the ability to ‘synthesize information across multiple media channels’ (Raybourn, 2015, p. 35). The Transmedia Learning framework facilitates ‘disparate pieces of knowledge acquired at different times and places, with different media’ to connect and provide a richer learning experience. This model reflects the fundamental ideas around transmedia learning, that learning is a collaborative process that is ongoing, and cross-platform. Collaboration takes place at multiple levels – a collaboration of knowledge across platforms, but also collaboration within the learning community – as learners both co-create materials, but also collaborate knowledge with their individual shared learnings.

Discussion

In a constructivist education model, such as transmedia learning, the literature collectively suggests the learning environment is an important element. The significance of transmedia learning lies in the power shift to the learner and the ability for them to be engaged and connected with their learning environment. For learners to feel ownership of the digital space, the educator becomes less ‘instructional’ and more ‘facilitating’ (Pence, 2011). This shift is important for the learner as they become confident in their own abilities to self-guide their learning journey. Sime and Themelis (2020) discussed the need for the educator to form their own transmedia identity in order to create a level of trust and reliability with the learner. Teske and Horstman (2012) highlighted a similar theme, but rather than the idea of an incomplete world, they used the term ‘splintered narrative’. They argued that from a learning perspective it is important that learners can piece together the narrative of their learning, therefore highlighting the need for transmedia learning to be a considered, strategic approach with thought given to how learners can gain knowledge across platforms that builds continuously on what they learn. The notion of the extension of knowledge through informal learning is another important element of transmedia learning. That is, learners feel confident enough in the online spaces to play, share, co-create, trial-and-error material – this is an extension of their formal learning and becomes an important part of the overall transmedia learning environment (Costa-Sánchez & Guerrero-Pico, 2020; Scolari et al., 2020).

Constructivist and connectivist learning emerge as themes in many articles on transmedia learning (Dickinson-Delaporte et al., 2018; Fleming, 2013; Herr-Stephenson et al., 2013; Kalogeras, 2013; Teske & Horstman, 2012). The two constructs are related in terms of the active role of the learner, that is, how learners ‘collaborate and construct knowledge’ (Herr-Stephenson et al., 2013; Kalogeras, 2013, p. 5). The idea of power and democratised learning is a key focus for Kalogeras (2013), who noted the importance of critical learning to empower learners in constructing meaning through their own narrative, extending knowledge holistically.

Further research

Models used in the studies were helpful yet not explicit in how to teach, and there is scope to future develop these models so they are able to be replicated for tertiary education. Many studies (Dickinson-Delaporte et al., 2018; Herr-Stephenson et al., 2013; Raybourn, 2014; Rodrigues & Bidarra, 2016) called for future research into this emerging area which is a different approach to simply ‘teaching online’. Scolari et al. (2020) had a clear taxonomy of transmedia literacy, of which some elements are helpful to understanding the learning process but not explicitly linked to transmedia learning (rather more around how students learn transmedia skills). Martinez (2022) presented one of the few figures explicitly outlining what transmedia learning is, although it is minimalist in its approach and high level, not outlining the activities involved for the learner. Studies are limited in identifying the different elements of transmedia learning in terms of synchronous and asynchronous learning in higher education. The use of digital resources, online connectedness and digital experiences needs to be further researched to understand how educators can offer best-practice, pedagogically sound transmedia learning environments.

Conclusion

Transmedia learning offers a unique way to ensure students are engaged and connected with their online learning. In an educational environment where blended and hyflex learning are becoming increasingly important, transmedia learning offers universities a point of difference, and a deeper online experience that creates online communities and provides student connectedness. While COVID-19 may move into a management stage, future planning for potential pandemics must remain key for higher education. Transmedia learning has a key role to play in ensuring online learning is strategic, and meaningful.

Scholars studying transmedia learning are arguably advocates for the approach; however, as more empirical research emerges on the topic, more weight is given to the educator’s point of view that ‘transmedia learning leverages several new media trends including the peer communications of social media, the scalability of MOOCs, and the design of transmedia storytelling to sustain learner engagement with memorable learning experiences’ (Raybourn, 2014, p. 472). The research is developing a critical voice on the discipline.

Transmedia learning has emerged over the last 13 years and is gaining interest as both an academic discipline and a teaching and learning approach. The intangible nature of cross-platform learning means a ‘one size fits all’ approach is not effective, and hence transmedia learning models provide space for nuance and adaptability. As transmedia skills become critical for learners, transmedia learning is almost intuitive in its ability to deeply embed the skills as a part of the learning model. As societies adapt to more online content, there still remains a gap in how to leverage transmedia learning to develop higher education knowledge, as well as online social and cultural competencies (Herr-Stephenson et al., 2013). There is a growing body of evidence that suggests transmedia learning is more effective at knowledge retention, learner engagement and satisfaction than traditional methods (Tombleson et al., 2016), and this is in part due to the changing expectations and knowledge of the learner. Across the span of the 13 years of this review, attitudes are changing towards technology and educators need to remain across these changes, which can occur in the space of months, not years.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Bridget Tombleson

Bridget Tombleson is a senior lecturer at Curtin University and has developed innovative approaches in teaching to enhance student learning specifically in the areas of digital environment and authentic assessment.