ABSTRACT
The PAL gene family plays an important role in plant growth, development, and response to abiotic stresses and has been identified in a variety of plants. However, a systematic characterization is still lacking in Ginkgo biloba. Using a bioinformatics approach, 11 GbPAL members of the PAL gene family identified in ginkgo were identified in this study. The protein structure and physicochemical properties indicated that the GbPAL genes were highly similar. Based on their exon-intron structures, they can be classified into three groups. A total of 62 cis-elements for hormone, light, and abiotic stress responses were identified in the promoters of GbPAL genes, indicating that PAL is a multifunctional gene family. GbPAL genes were specifically expressed in different tissues and ploidy of ginkgo. These results provide a theoretical basis for further studies on the functional expression of the GbPAL genes.
1. Introduction
Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lyase (PAL, EC 4.3.1.24) is a critical enzyme in the secondary metabolism of plants that plays a crucial role in their stress resistance.Citation1 PAL, which is one of the earliest enzymes in the phenylpropanoid biosynthesis pathway, is responsible for regulating the synthesis of various secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, lignin, and phenolic compounds.Citation2–4 Since its initial extraction from Hordeum vulgare in 1961, PAL has been successfully isolated and purified from higher plants, including Solanum tuberosum and Nicotiana tabacum.Citation5–7 A significant positive correlation between PAL activity and flavonoid content was reported in Malus pumila fruits in 1996.Citation8 In Arabidopsis thaliana, AtPAL1 and AtPAL2 are highly expressed in roots and flowers, and their expression levels are influenced by nitrogen stress and temperature changes, which lead to the accumulation of flavonoids.Citation9
The deciphering of more plant genomes has provided a scientific foundation for exploring the PAL gene family. The PAL gene family has been extensively studied in several plants, such as rice,Citation10 Medicago sativa,Citation11 Vitis vinifera,Citation12 and Cuminum cyminum.Citation13 However, the number of PAL gene family members varies significantly among different plants, with higher gene copy numbers in potatoes and lower gene copy numbers in A. thaliana, Oryza sativa, V. vinifera, and N. tabacum.Citation7,Citation14,Citation15 There are four genes in the PAL gene family in the model plant A. thaliana: PAL1 (AT2G37040), PAL2 (AT3G53260), PAL3 (AT5G04230), and PAL4 (AT3G10340).Citation16 AtPAL1, AtPAL2 and AtPAL4 play important roles in lignin synthesis in the plant vascular system, and AtPAL1 and AtPAL2 play important roles in flavonoid biosynthesis.Citation9
Ginkgo biloba L., also known as a “living fossil”, is the sole representative of the ginkgo family and a typical example of gymnosperms with a vast and intricate genome.Citation17,Citation18 Ginkgo is widely used as an ornamental tree and a medicinal plant. Flavonoids are the primary economic components of Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE) and are extensively employed in the pharmaceutical industry, health products, food additives, functional beverages, and cosmetics.Citation19 However, despite the discovery of a highly precise ginkgo reference genome, the PAL gene family in ginkgo has not been systematically explored. Investigating the PAL gene family of ginkgo can help unravel the disparities in the PAL gene family between gymnosperms and angiosperms.
The objective of this investigation is to identify the members of the PAL gene family in the ginkgo genome, and conduct a bioinformatics analysis of their phylogeny, gene structure, conserved motifs, and cis-acting elements utilizing the latest ginkgo genome-wide search approach. Furthermore, based on our previously obtained haploid transcriptome data, we compared the expression of each GbPALs with the diploid ginkgo genome and performed expression analysis for different sites and under different environmental stresses, respectively. Finally, we utilized quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) to assess the expression specificity of GbPALs in different tissues, and analyze the variations in expression levels among different ploidy levels of the ginkgo genome.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Identification of PAL genes in ginkgo
First, the protein data of the whole-genome sequence of ginkgo were downloaded from NGDC (https://ngdc.cncb.ac.cn/). AtPALs sequences were used as reference sequence for ginkgo genome sequencing, using tools available on the NCBI website. The PAL gene and protein sequence of A. thaliana were downloaded from the TAIR12.0 website. Initial candidate genes that may contain PAL structural domains in ginkgo were identified through comparisons. Candidate GbPALs containing PAL structures were then identified using HMMER 3.0, by selecting default parameters (E-value threshold: 0.01; Alignment mode: local alignment; Search mode: heuristic search.) for screening from the Pfam database. All candidate GbPAL protein sequences were further examined using the Simple Molecular Architecture Research Tool (SMART, http://smart.embl-heidelberg.de/) and the Conserved Domains Database (CDD). The sequences of candidate PAL genes retrieved with missing the Lyase_aromatic domains (PF00221) were discarded to identify the members of the GbPAL gene family. The ExPASy (https://web.expasy.org/protparam/) server was used to calculate the molecular weight (MW) and isoelectric point (pI) of the proteins. The ProComp 9.0 database was used to predict the subcellular localization of PAL proteins. A per-residue confidence score (pLDDT) of 0–100 was generated using AlphaFold (https://alphafold.com/) to predict the tertiary structure of GbPAL proteins.
2.2. Phylogenetic analysis of GbPAL genes
PAL proteins from A. thaliana, N. tabacum, Zea mays, Oryza sativa, Populus trichocarpa, V. vinifera, Juglans Regia, Picea abies and ginkgo (Protein sequences in Supplementary Data Table S1) were used to construct phylogenetic trees. The 73 protein sequences were aligned using the Clustal W function of the MEGA 11 software, with default parameters selected (Scoring matrix: BLOSUM62; Gap opening penalty: 15; Gap extension penalty: 6.66; Delay divergent cutoff: 30%; Residue-Specific penalty: OFF; Hydrophilic penalty: OFF; DNA transition weight: 0.5; Use negative matrix: OFF; Maximum iterations: 1000). PAL protein sequences from nine different species were constructed using the neighbor joining (NJ) method, and 1000 bootstrap replicates were performed. The phylogenetic tree was visualized using the Evolview website (https://www.evolgenius.info/evolview/).
2.3. Gene structure and Conserved MotifAnalysis
MEME (http://meme-suite.org/tools/meme) was used to search GbPAL motifs; the number of searches was 20 and all other parameters were set to the same default settings. The sequences used in this study appeared at least once. Conserved patterns and gene structures were mapped using the TBtools software.
2.4. Analysis of the cis‑regulatory elements in the promoter
The cis-acting elements were analyzed in the 2000 bp sequence upstream of the candidate PAL gene start codon using the PlantCARE (http://bioinforma ics.psb.ugent.be/webtools/plantcare/html/) software. The TBtools software was used to determine the distribution of cis-elements and to draw the pattern.
2.5. Ginkgo PAL transcriptome analysis
Ginkgo root, stem, leaf, flower, seed, haploid and diploid transcriptome data was obtained from the NCBI by through decomposition of SRX4132865 for roots, stems, and leaves:Citation20 SRR2147720,Citation21 GSE128653,Citation22 SRP337737Citation23 for flowers, seeds, and haploid and diploid ginkgo. TPM values were calculated using Kallisto v0.44.0 (California, USA)Citation24 and homogenized using Log2 (TPM +1) for different transcriptome data, and expression heat maps were plotted using TBtools.Citation25
2.6. qRT-PCR for GbPAL
In April 2022, the flowers of five male ginkgo plants were collected from the Nanjing Forestry University campus and the root, stem, leaf and seed material of five female ginkgo plants were collected in August. Nanjing Forestry University (118.481 E, 32.444 N) is located in Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China. The annual average temperature is 15.7°C, and the annual accumulated temperature (≥10°C) is 4897°C. The annual average precipitation is 971.7 mm, with spring and summer accounting for more than 70%, and autumn and winter accounting for only 30%. The annual frost-free period is 233d. Three biological replicates of each tissue sample were rapidly frozen in liquid nitrogen for total RNA extraction. Total RNA was extracted using the TRIzol reagent (Invitrogen Scientific, Inc., Carlsbad, CA, USA), according to the manufacturer’s protocol. RNA quality was assessed using an Agilent 2,100 Bioanalyzer (Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA, USA) and RNase-free agarose gel electrophoresis. The extracted ginkgo RNA was reverse-transcribed using the PrimeScriptTM 1st Strand cDNA Synthesis Kit (TaKaPa, Dalian) and stored in a −20°C refrigerator. GbCHS (gene ID: AY496931.1) served as the endogenous control. According to the CT value, the relative expression of all GbPAL genes under different conditions was calculated using the 2−ΔΔCt method and visualized using TBtools.
Based on the gene structure of GbPAL, qRT-PCR primers (Primer sequences in Supplementary Data Table S2) were designed using NCBI-blast, qRT-PCR was performed using SYBR Green Master Mix (Applied Biosystems), and samples were run in a CFX96 Real Time System (Applied Biosystems). The cycling conditions were as follows: denaturation at 95°C for 5 s, annealing at 55°C for 15 s, and extension at 65°C for 5 s. To ensure the accuracy of the results, three biological replicates and three technical replicates were used for each sample. The PCR products from each sample were verified through DNA sequencing.
2.7. Protein-protein interaction networks analysis
Utilizing the string website(https://cn.string-db.org/), we downloaded protein interaction relationship of A. thaliana and use it reference. Obtained data into Cytoscape software(v3.1.0)Citation26 for visualization.
3. Results
3.1. Identification of GbPAL genes
We conducted a BLAST search of the ginkgo genome using PAL sequences from A. thaliana to identify PAL genes in ginkgo. Thirteen putative PAL genes were initially identified and subsequently confirmed to possess the PAL domain through submission to CDD, Pfam, and SMART (Supplementary Figure S1). Ultimately, we identified 11 members of the GbPAL gene family, which were designated as GbPAL1-GbPAL11 in accordance with their gene ID (). The coding sequence length of the GbPAL genes ranged from 1650 bp (GbPAL8) to 2505 bp (GbPAL3), with an average of 699 amino acids (AA) per PAL protein. All PAL proteins had an isoelectric point (pI) less than 7 and were mildly acidic. While all PAL proteins except for GbPAL5 and GbPAL4 were stable (Instability Index < 40), their grand average of hydropathicity (GRAVY) ranged from −0.31 (GbPAL4) to 0.021 (GbPAL11), indicating that 81.8% (9/11) of PAL proteins were hydrophilic (with negative values for hydrophobic proteins). As no signal peptide was detected, the ginkgo PAL proteins were all intracellular proteins. Furthermore, the subcellular localization prediction indicated that all PAL proteins were located in the cytoplasm, except for GbPAL10, which was localized in the nucleus.
Table 1. The statistics of the ginkgo PAL gene family.
A per-residue confidence score (pLDDT) of 0–100 was generated using AlphaFold to predict the tertiary structure of the GbPAL proteins (). The tertiary structures of the 11 GbPAL proteins were highly similar.
Figure 1. The tertiary structure of GbPAL proteins. The blue to green color indicates the confidence level from high to low, respectively.
3.2. Phylogenetic analysis of the GbPAL gene family
To elucidate the phylogenetic relationships among PAL proteins from various species, we employed 73 PAL protein sequences to construct a phylogenetic tree using the neighbor-joining (NJ) method with 1000 bootstrap replications. The sequences were obtained from a diverse set of organisms, including A. thaliana, N. tabacum, O. sativa, P. abies, Z. mays, P. trichocarpa, V. vinifera, J. Regia, and ginkgo ().
Figure 2. Phylogeny of the PAL gene family in different species. The conserved PAL proteins from Arabidopsis thaliana(At), nicotiana tabacum(Nt), Zea mays(Zm), Oryza sativa(Os), populus trichocarpa(Pt), Vitis vinifera(Vv), Juglans Regia(Jr), Picea abies(Pa), and ginkgo biloba(Gb).
Based on an exhaustive comparison of the nucleotide sequences, the PAL genes were classified into five distinct groups. Notably, GbPAL2, GbPAL6, GbPAL9, GbPAL1, GbPAL8, and GbPAL7 from ginkgo were found to cluster together in group 3, forming a separate category. In addition, GbPAL3, GbPAL11, and GbPAL10 were observed to cluster with PaPAL, indicating a close relationship between these genes. This relationship was further substantiated by the fact that both ginkgo and P. abies are gymnosperms.
3.3. Analysis of conserved motifs and gene structures of GbPALs
To investigate the structural diversity of ginkgo PAL proteins, we analyzed motif composition and organization using the MEME software (). Based on a phylogenetic tree, the 11 PAL genes were classified into three subfamilies, and we identified 15 conserved motifs through software analysis, which we named as motif 1–15. In subfamily I, GbPAL8 lacks motifs 6, 9, 12, and 15, while GbPAL7 lacks motifs 5 and 10. The motifs in subfamily II are highly conserved, while in subfamily III, GbPAL11 contains unique motifs 3 and 9 compared to GbPAL10. Regarding gene distribution on chromosomes, two genes were located on chromosomes 8, 9, and 12, three genes on chromosome 10, and one gene on chromosomes 6 and 11. Interestingly, 72.7% (8/11) of PAL genes lacked introns.
Figure 3. Phylogenetic tree, conservative protein motifs and gene structure of GbPAL genes. (a) a phylogenetic tree was constructed for 11 GbPAL genes. (b) conservative protein motifs of the 11 GbPAL genes. Different conserved motifs with numbers 1–15 were displayed using different colors. (c) gene structure of the 11 GbPAL genes.
Taken together, our results suggest that PAL genes in ginkgo are concentrated on several chromosomes and belong to the same family, with high conservation among members of different subfamilies. Additionally, our findings imply that different subfamilies may have diverged in function during evolution.
3.4. Promoter region of cis-acting elements for GbPAL genes
Plant genes are regulated at the transcriptional level through the interaction between cis-acting elements and trans-acting factors, ensuring precise and efficient gene expression. To investigate the potential biological processes involving GbPAL genes, we analyzed the 2 kb promoter sequence upstream of 11 GbPAL genes using the PlantCARE website (). Our analysis revealed a total of 62 cis-acting elements within the promoter region of the GbPAL gene family, which can be categorized into four groups: abiotic stress-responsive, hormone-responsive, light-responsive, and specific regulatory elements.
Figure 4. (a) genetic tree of the 11 GbPAL genes. (b) cis-regulatory elements are contained in the 11 GbPAL genes, with different elements indicated using different colors.
All GbPALs were found to contain cis-regulatory elements essential for the induction of anaerobiosis, while low-temperature responsiveness elements were present in GbPAL11, GbPAL8, and GbPAL10. Furthermore, we identified five hormone-related response elements, including those involved in auxin, gibberellin, salicylic acid, and abscisic acid responsiveness. Additionally, MYB binding sites were found to be involved in light responsiveness in GbPAL4 and GbPAL3. Finally, specific regulatory elements were identified, including those involved in circadian control, phytochrome down-regulation expression, and abscisic acid responsiveness. Taken together, these results suggest that GbPAL genes may play a crucial role in regulating plant growth, development, and response to abiotic stresses.
3.5. Collinearity and protein-protein interaction networks analysis
To further study gene duplication events in the GbPAL gene family, covariance analysis was performed. GbPAL genes were mainly distributed on chromosomes 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 of ginkgo, with three genes on chromosome 10 being the most abundant. Analysis of covariance showed the replicative relationships between genes, and relationships within species are shown in . Two pairs of tandem duplication genes GbPAL4 (evm.model.chr9.1603)/GbPAL10 (evm.model.chr12.1405) and GbPAL7 (evm.model.chr10.571)/GbPAL9 (evm.model.chr11.1054) were identified.
Figure 5. (a) synteny analysis of GbPAL genes. The chromosomes of ginkgo are drawn as a circle. The distribution of GbPAL genes is marked beside the circle. Colored curves indicate the details of syntenic regions between GbPAL genes. The circos graph shows chromosomes, gap, GC ratio, and gene density in order from the inside to the outside. (b) Interspecific covariance among members of the G. biolba, A. thaliana and M. glyptostroboides. the blue line indicate the covariance of the PAL gene between species.
To determine the covariance of GbPAL family individual genes among other species, A. thaliana and Metasequoia glyptostroboidesCitation27 were analyzed with the PAL family in ginkgo. (). Overall, ginkgo has less genome-wide covariance with A. thaliana and has no covariant PAL genes among them; ginkgo has one covariant PAL gene with the same gymnosperm as M. glyptostroboides. Comparative analyses of the GbPAL family with other species may provide research references for analyzing the genetic relationships and gene functions of the species.
3.6. Analysis of GbPAL family transcripts
Gene transcription and expression are important for exploring gene function. According to the heat map of gene expression of GbPAL genes in different tissues of ginkgo, it can be seen that GbPAL gene have the highest expression level in ginkgo leaves (). Analysis of transcriptome data based on haploid versus diploid in the gene expression heat map illustrated that GbPAL2, GbPAL3 and GbPAL7 expression was upregulated, and the rest of the gene expression was downregulated relative to the diploid. This is consistent with the regular distribution of ginkgo flavonoids in different parts and the ploidy of ginkgo.Citation23 Therefore, GbPAL genes play an important role in regulating flavonoid accumulation in ginkgo.Citation28
Figure 6. Heatmap of expression of GbPals in different states. A: root; B: stem; C: leaf; D: flower; E: seed; F: haploid; G: diploid. H-J: ginkgo leaves under drought stress, salt stress, and high temperature stress.
Under salt stress, the GbPALs exhibited a significant downregulation in expression. Under drought stress, all GbPALs except GbPAL9 and GbPAL4 were significantly downregulated, while GbPAL9 and GbPAL4 showed slight upregulation. Under heat stress, GbPAL6, GbPAL7, and GbPAL8 were upregulated, while the others were downregulated. These results suggest that GbPALs have different response mechanisms to different stress environments.
3.7. qRT-PCR validation of specific expression of GbPAL in different tissues
To verify the subspecific expression of the GbPAL gene family in different parts of ginkgo, we performed qRT-PCR on 11 GbPAL genes (). GbCHS, as a reference gene stably expressed in different developmental tissues of ginkgo, expressed stably in this experiment. Overall, GbPAL was most highly expressed in the leaves, followed by the flowers. For example, in GbPAL2, leaf expression is 5.3-fold higher than that of roots and 8-fold higher than that of the seeds. In addition, the expression of GbPAL5 and GbPAL10 was the highest in flowers.
Figure 7. Relative expression levels of GbPAL family genes. The vertical bar in the bar graph is standard error. Bars with different letters (a–c) indicate significant differences at p < 0.05 according to Duncan’s test. Gene expression values were normalized against the willow GbCHS-like gene.
In order to further compare the differential expression of PAL gene family in different parts of plants, we compared the relative expression levels of PAL gene family in the leaves, stems, phloem, xylem, mature leaves, and roots of Salix babylonica (). The results showed that the expression pattern of GbPALs in ginkgo was basically consistent. The expression level of SvPALs in the leaves was significantly higher than in other parts. The expression level of SvPALs decreased with the increasing maturity of leaves.
Figure 8. qRT-PCR analysis of the level of expression of SvPAL1, SvPAL2, SvPAL3, and SvPAL4 in Salix babylonica young leaves, stem, phloem, xylem, mature leaves, and root tissue. Gene expression values were normalized against the SvTIP4 gene.
3.8. Protein-protein interactions network analysis of the GbPAL family member
PAL proteins interactions with CHS, FLS1, and F3H proteins are hightest of the network. CHS is the key enzyme in the biosynthesis pathway of plant flavonoids while F3H acts on the bifurcation of anthocyanins and flavonols.The function of F3H is to converse (2S)-flavanones to (2 R,3 R)-dihydroflavonols that directly intermediate the biosynthesis of flavonols,Citation29 FLS1 is involved in the flavonoid synthesis pathway. Networks further indicates that the PAL gene plays an important role in flavonoid synthesis. Previous studies have also shown that CHS, FLS1, F3H, and PAL genes play important roles in stress resistance ().Citation30
Figure 9. Protein-protein interactions network for GbPAL based on their orthologs in A. thaliana.
4. Discussion
In recent years, mounting evidence has highlighted the crucial role of PAL genes in plant growth, resistance, and development.Citation31 At the molecular level, a more in-depth understanding of the PAL gene family could shed light on potential resistance mechanisms and aid in the development of plant species with enhanced resistance. While the function of the PAL gene family has been extensively studied in dicotsCitation32 and monocotsCitation33,Citation34 through high-throughput sequencing, research on gymnosperm molecular cloning, characterization, and expression of the PALs from ginkgo is limited. Thus, in this study, we conducted a genome-wide characterization of the PAL gene in ginkgo, followed by a preliminary analysis of its characteristics.
Members of the PAL gene family have been identified and extensively studied in many plants. The PAL gene family typically comprises 4–15 members, which varies between species, including alfalfa,Citation11 walnut,Citation35 potato,Citation6 and grape.Citation12 The small difference in the number of members in the PAL gene family indicates that PAL genes did not undergo significant amplification during species differentiation.Citation36 In this study, 11 members of the PAL gene family were identified from ginkgo using a bioinformatics approach. Ginkgo mainly contains 12 pairs of chromosomes with a genome size of 9.87 Gb.Citation18 This suggests that there is no linear relationship between the number of PAL gene family members and the species genome size, and it is speculated that some PAL genes evolved to extinction or evolved into other genes during the evolution of ginkgo due to the pressure of natural selection between them.
Gene duplication events are the primary drivers of gene family expansion. In this study, we found that GbPALs are distributed in clusters, and a similar clustered distribution of PAL chromosome localization exists in watermelon.Citation37 In ginkgo, three of the 11 PALs were tandemly duplicated on chromosome 10, two tandem genes on chromosomes 8, 9, and 12, and the remaining two were individually arranged on chromosomes 6 and 11. The types of gene duplication are whole genome duplication, homologous exchange, fragment exchange, chromosome fragment exchange, and tandem duplicationCitation37 GbPAL4/GbPAL10 and GbPAL7/GbPAL9 are two pairs of tandem duplicated genes, which may have redundant functions in the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. PAL was amplified in ginkgo, but not in poplar, tobacco, etc., each of which had four PAL genes. This suggests that the increase in PAL genes in ginkgo may facilitate the improvement of adaptive capacity to the external environment.
The clustering results indicated that GbPALs were more closely related to PaPAL genes, suggesting that the GbPAL gene family existed during the gymnosperm period and may be involved in the flavonoid synthesis pathway, which is similar to PAL genes in other plants. We also found that the members of the GbPAL gene family, except GbPAL5 and GbPAL4, were independent of monocots and dicots, indicating that the PAL gene family existed in gymnosperms before the differentiation of monocots and dicots. GbPAL3, GbPAL11, and GbPAL10, clustered in the same subfamily as PaPAL, suggesting that the PAL gene family in ginkgo and PaPAL gene family may have originated from the same ancestor. In addition, GbPAL1, GbPAL2, GbPAL6, GbPAL7, GbPAL8, and GbPAL9 genes formed separate subfamilies and were highly conserved throughout evolution.
We found that the PAL gene family contains not only a large number of abiotic stress elements but also various types of regulatory elements such as light and phytohormone response elements. Different PAL family members contain different numbers and types of elements, indicating that GbPAL genes are involved in different biological regulatory processes, and different PAL genes have specific regulatory patterns. Many studies have shown that PAL genes are involved in responses to environmental stimuli, including stress conditions such as UV exposure,Citation1 drought,Citation38 waterlogging,Citation11 pathogens, wounds, and extreme temperatures. Individual PAL proteins may be structurally distinct from other PALs and appear to have different functions, making PAL a multifunctional gene family. For example, in Arabidopsis, AtPAL1–4 are mainly involved in lignin synthesis, whereas AtPAL1 and AtPAL2 are associated with flavonoid synthesis.Citation39
In our previous study, it was found that the flavonoid content of haploid leaves was always smaller than that of diploids, and transcriptomic and proteomic correlation analyses yielded that the PAL gene interacts with several other genes and plays a major role in haploid ginkgo flavonoid regulation. Therefore, we again analyzed the expression of each member of the PAL gene family specifically through transcriptomic data, and the expression of GbPAL2, GbPAL7 and GbPAL10 was upregulated, while the expression of the remaining genes was downregulated relative to the diploid.
As the initial enzyme in the phenylpropanoid pathway, PAL is tightly regulated both pre- and post-transcriptionally.Citation35 Through protein interaction network prediction, we found that the protein encoded by PAL gene interacts with proteins such as CHS, F3H, FLS3 in the phenylpropanoid metabolism pathway, further indicating that PAL plays a crucial role in flavonoid synthesis. Expression of PAL genes in various tissues has been extensively studied in different plant species. In our study, we found that GbPAL was constitutively expressed in all tissues examined, and our transcriptome data were in agreement with the qRT-PCR results. Generally, GbPAL expression was highest in leaves (excluding GbPAL4 and GbPAL10) and lowest in roots and seeds, which is consistent with previous reports.Citation40 However, it has also been reported that in Jatropha curcas, PAL1 is highly expressed in flowers, indicating a potential role in secondary metabolic activity.Citation41 Thus, it is speculated that GbPAL4 and GbPAL10 may play a relatively significant role in secondary metabolic activity during flowering.Citation42
5. Conclusions
In this study, we investigated the PAL gene family in ginkgo at the genome-wide level using bioinformatics tools. The genome of ginkgo displayed amplification of PAL genes, with 11 genes identified and unevenly distributed across the genome. Additionally, GbPALs were classified into three subfamilies, which are evolutionarily conserved. Members belonging to the same subfamily exhibited similar biosynthetic structures and conserved protein motifs. The analysis of cis-elements indicated that GbPALs may play a crucial role in plant growth and development, particularly in response to hormones, light, and abiotic stresses. Thus, our findings provide novel insights into the GbPAL gene family and pave the way for further investigation of its biological functions.
Author contributions
Methodology, X.G., D.P.; software, Y.H.; formal analysis, Y.H.; data curation, X.G., Z.X.; writing – original draft preparation, X.G.; writing – review and editing, X.G., and Q.G.; and project administration and funding acquisition, Q.G. All authors have read and agreed to the submitted version of the manuscript.
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We thank the Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China for allowing us to use their research facilities.
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Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/15592324.2023.2271807
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References
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