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Abstract
Owing to their diverse populations and particular social configurations, the United Arab Emirates offer a unique urban context in which to question the notion of cosmopolitanism and its daily manifestations, since the main cities of the Emirates maximize occasions for intercultural interaction while maintaining major economic divisions and social hierarchies in most parts of daily life. While national and ethnic categories in the Emirates are often presented in the literature as being rigid, this paper argues that a biographical approach allows for a finer analysis of cosmopolitan situations. The French residents of Abu Dhabi and Dubai, relatively privileged migrants, position themselves along a wide spectrum of places and activities, raising different social and urban issues. Based on 26 months of participant observation in Abu Dhabi and Dubai and 12 in-depth interviews with French residents of the UAE, this paper shows that their forms of sociability, social practices, and international mobility work together to shape diverse and sometimes paradoxical forms of openness to national, ethnic, or social “others”.
Notes
1 In the UAE, demographic characteristics of the resident population and censuses results are not disclosed to the public or researchers in real time. The last federal census conducted in the UAE was in 2005. Emirate-level censuses were conducted in the past decade, however, no detailed results from any of the four censuses have been disclosed. Researchers have been using various data (embassy sources, birth registers, …) to produce estimated demographics. We are using here the data presented by Françoise de Bel-Air in a Gulf Migration report [Bel-Air, “Demography, Migration, and the Labour Market in the UAE”, Gulf Labour Markets, Migration and Population Programme (GLMM) 7 (2015)].
2 Walsh, “‘It Got Very Debauched, Very Dubai!’ Heterosexual Intimacy Amongst Single British Expatriates”, Social & Cultural Geography 8.4 (2007); Coles and Walsh, “From ‘Trucial State’ to ‘Postcolonial’ City? The Imaginative Geographies of British Expatriates in Dubai”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 36.8 (2010), pp. 1317–1333.
3 Le Renard, “‘Ici, il y a les Français français et les Français avec origines’: reconfigurations raciales autour d’expériences de Dubaï”, Tracés: Revue de Sciences humaines 30, 15 April 2016, pp. 55–78; Le Renard, “Petits arrangements avec l’égalitarisme: Les Français.e.s de Dubaï et les employées domestiques ”, Geneses 109.4 (2017), pp. 118–338; Le Renard, Le Privilège occidental: Travail, intimité et hiérarchies postcoloniales à Dubaï (2019); Cosquer, “Expat” à Abu Dhabi: Blanchité et construction du groupe national chez les migrant.e.s français.e.s, PhD Diss. (2018).
4 Gulf Labor Markets, Migration, and Population (GMMM) programme, “UAE: Estimates of Population Residing in the UAE by Country of Citizenship (Selected Countries, 2014)”.
5 Wagner, Les nouvelles élites de la mondialisation: une immigration dorée en France (1998).
6 Fabbiano, Peraldi, Poli, and Terrazzoni (eds), Les migrations des Nords vers les Suds (2019).
7 Janoschka and Haas (eds), Contested Spatialities, Lifestyle Migration and Residential Tourism (2013).
8 Benson and O’Reilly (eds), Lifestyle Migration: Expectations, Aspirations and Experiences (2009); Benson and Osbaldiston (eds), Understanding Lifestyle Migration: Theoretical Approaches to Migration and the Quest for a Better Way of Life (2014).
9 Amit, Going First Class? New Approaches to Privileged Travel and Movement (2007); Croucher, “Privileged Mobility in an Age of Globality”, Societies 2.4 (2012), pp. 1–13.; Twine and Gardener (eds), Geographies of Privilege (2013).
10 Karkabi, “Lifestyle Migration in South Sinai, Egypt: Nationalisation, Privileged Citizenship and Indigenous Rights”, International Review of Social Research 3.1 (2013), pp. 49–66; Kunz, “‘Making Space’ in Cairo: Expatriate Movements and Spatial Practices”, Geoforum 88 (2018), pp. 109–17; Chaveneau, Les Internationaux en Palestine: portrait d’une migration singulière (2018).
11 Coles and Walsh, “From ‘Trucial State’ to ‘Postcolonial’ City?”; Le Renard, “‘Ici, il y a les Français français et les Français avec origines’; Renard, “Petits arrangements avec l’égalitarisme”; Cosquer, “Expat” à Abu Dhabi: blanchité et construction du groupe national chez les migrant.e.s français.e.s.
12 Wagner, Les nouvelles élites de la mondialisation; Calhoun, “The Class Consciousness of Frequent Travelers: Toward a Critique of Actually Existing Cosmopolitanism”, The South Atlantic Quarterly 101.4 (2002), pp. 869–897.
13 Bertaux, “L’approche biographique: sa validité méthodologique, ses potentialités”, Cahiers Internationaux de Sociologie 69 (1980), pp. 197–225; Findlay and Li, “An Auto-Biographical Approach to Understanding Migration: The Case of Hong Kong Emigrants”, Area 29.1 (1997), pp. 34–44; Halfacree and Boyle, “The Challenge Facing Migration Research: The Case for a Biographical Approach”, Progress in Human Geography 17.3 (1993), pp. 333–348; Apitzsch and Siouti, “Biographical Analysis as an Interdisciplinary Research Perspective in the Field of Migration Studies”, Research Integration (2007); Tsiolis, “Biographical Constructions and Transformations: Using Biographical Methods for Studying Transcultural Identities”, Papers: Revista de Sociologia 97.1 (2012), pp. 113.
14 Guhlich, “Biographical Approaches to Migration and Social Mobility”, in Guhlich (ed.), Migration and Social Pathways: Biographies of Highly Educated People Moving East-West-East in Europe (2017), p. 91.
15 Cicchelli and Mesure (eds), Cosmopolitanism in Hard Times (2021).
16 Rovisco and Nowicka (eds), Cosmopolitanism in Practice (2009).
17 Especially in a context where the population of study often feel caricatured and mocked by French media and the French public sphere [Cosquer, “Looking for the Authentic Other: Cosmopolitan Ethos and Orientalism in French Migrants’ Experiences in Abu Dhabi”, Critique of Anthropology 41.4 (2021), pp. 405–20].
18 These groups help members to sell and buy goods, recommend services, places, and people (from maids to doctors), organize gatherings (like playdates for kids) or discuss issues (especially for residents of the same tower or compound).
19 According to Vertovec, the term aims at emphasizing not only the broader diversity of the country of origin in one society but also the shifts in “differential legal statuses and their concomitant conditions, divergent labour market experiences, discrete configurations of gender and age, patterns of spatial distribution, and mixed local area responses by service providers and residents. The dynamic interaction of these variables is what is meant by “super-diversity””. Combinations of these features produce “new hierarchical social positions, statuses or stratifications” [Vertovec, “Talking Around Super-Diversity”, Ethnic and Racial Studies 42.1 (2019)”, p.126].
20 Vora, Impossible Citizens: Dubai’s Indian Diaspora (2013)
21 Elsheshtawy, Pagès-El Karoui, and Bahoken, “Mapping Patterns of Segregation in Dubai: Towards a New Research Agenda for a Social Geography of Gulf Cities”, HAL: Siences humaines et sociales (2018); Elsheshtawy, “Urban Enclaves and Transient Cosmopolitanism: Scenes from Abu Dhabi and Dubai”, City 24.5–6 (2020), pp. 805–817.
22 Elsheshtawy, “The Dubai of … ”, Middle East Report 287 (2018).
23 Kyriazis et al., “Behavioral Mapping of Abu Dhabi’s Public Spaces: Urban Research Photography and Cultural Clashes”, Sophia Journal 4.1 (2019), pp. 75–85; Kyriazis, Chaveneau and Dubucs, Abu Dhabi Public Spaces: Urban Encounters, Social Diversity and (In)Formality (2021).
24 Research programme “Redefining Abu Dhabi’s Public Spaces: Urban Classification and Social Interaction”, 2018–2019, Abu Dhabi Department of Education and Knowledge (carried out by Dubucs, Kyriazis, Chaveneau, Montagne, Mahgoub, Dilip, Qamar and Zahid).
25 Kyriazis, Chaveneau and Dubucs, Abu Dhabi Public Spaces: Urban Encounters, Social Diversity and (In)formality.
26 Dubucs, “De quoi la tolérance est-elle le nom ? Questionner le modèle émirien de «ville inclusive»”, Espace populations sociétés 2–3 (2021).
27 The UAE Ministry of Tolerance’s official website begins with this statement: “the UAE, with its wise leadership and people from diverse cultural backgrounds, is a combination of tolerance, harmony, respect, and acceptance of the other. The idea of tolerance is rooted in the authentic UAE society, which derives from the medium of the true Islamic religion, the noble Arab customs and traditions, and the wisdom and heritage of Zayed” [first ruler of the UAE].
28 The UAE Ministry of Tolerance’s official website stresses that “the UAE also ranked first globally in peaceful coexistence among nationalities, with residents from over 200 countries, according to the report of the UN International Organization for Peace, Care and Relief for 2014”.
29 One of many examples: Anon, “Abu Dhabi Named Safest City in the World for Second Year Running”, The National, 19 September 2018.
30 Discussions were conducted with several French managers or engineers working for a French company in the oil and gas sector, for whom careers abroad could include stays in West Africa or Central America.
31 Putnam, “E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and Community in the Twenty-First Century”, Scandinavian Political Studies (2007).
32 During an interview, Muriel, a French woman of 35, said that “I tried to learn Arabic at the beginning, but it is difficult to find a course, and when you do it is not at the right time when you have children. Plus, it is just for the ‘beauty of the art’, like learning Arabic in Paris, because I will not be able to use it here as there is no interaction or linguistic immersion in the country”.
33 In online forums of parents living in the UAE, members often exchange recommendations about housemaids and nannies. The nationality is always specified, while other characteristics, like years of experience or skills are more rarely mentioned.
34 Sudanese migration, for example, is long-standing to the UAE, and individuals from Sudan benefit from different social and professional positions than other individuals from Africa.
35 Le Renard, “‘Ici, il y a les Français français et les Français avec origines’”.
36 A housemaid or nanny will receive a different salary depending on her nationality. The salary discrepancy is due to agreements made between home country and UAE governments, training and experience of the worker, level of English language and prejudices against or in favour of certain nationality/culture.
37 For example, among French migrants, significant wealth discrepancies can be observed. A teacher in an elementary school on a local contract earns around 10,000 dirhams, while an engineer working for a French company earns more than 40,000 dirhams and have an “expat package”.
38 Cosquer, “Looking for the Authentic Other”.
39 Lori, “Temporary Workers or Permanent Migrants? The Kafala System and Contestations over Residency in the Arab Gulf States” (2012); Thiollet, Assaf, “Cosmopolitanism in Exclusionary Contexts” (2021).
40 In 2019, the Government of the UAE revised its visa policy by introducing a new system for long-term residence permit, popularized as the “Golden visa”. It targets wealthy investors, entrepreneurs, “specialized talents”, researchers and “bright students”, with an eligibility up to a 10-year residency permit.
41 Websites and forums providing new French residents with advice about accommodation, surveys among French acquaintances, and interviews with non-profit agencies welcoming and advising French residents.
42 “Buried deep in Officers City, Mangrove Village is all about ‘the family’; baby buggies are definitely the accessory of choice, and amongst its largely western expat contingent there are the makings of a community” [ Time Out Abu Dhabi, “Mangrove Village” (2009)].
43 The vicinity of numerous “French military families” is mentioned in the forums and advertisements related to a specific sector of the Al Rayyana Development, nicknamed “the French corner”, a mid-rise block in the Abu Dhabi suburbs in which 287 out of its 523 apartments have been taken on 30-year leases by the Defense Conseil International Group under contract with the French government to provide accommodation for military personnel.
44 Depending on the company and work contract, the most privileged migrants will benefit from a housing allowance from their employer. For those who do not benefit from such an allowance, the range of the rent and the place one can afford will be very different depending on salary and family status.
45 The Website of the club is only in French.
46 To ensure confidentiality, we do not use the real names of the interviewees.
47 By far the most common game in Abu Dhabi, but predominantly played by young men from South Asia and to some extent also by citizens of the Commonwealth.
48 Abu Dhabi Country Club’s Website expresses its positioning as both socially exclusive and nationally diverse: “We’ve been a part of Abu Dhabi’s social life for years […]. You’ll find loyal Club members in the corporate world as well as in the hospitality and events circles […] A world of privacy, luxury, elegance and relaxation awaits you – with personalized attention and service of international standards at the club. […] More than 4,000 members from around the world have discovered the advantages of being a part of ‘ADCC’ in Abu Dhabi”.
49 Services on Christmas Eve are scheduled throughout the day in different languages, including English, French, Malay, Arabic, Korean, Polish, Urdu, Italian, Spanish, Konkani, Tamil, Sinhala, and Tagalog.
50 The UAE government has launched an Emiratisation campaign (tawṭeen in Arabic) that mandates the active inclusion of Emiratis in the job market, particularly the private sector. It aims to increase the number of Emiratis in the job market and their contributions to the economy.
51 While male spouses are sometimes unemployed, such cases are relatively infrequent, while “stay-at-home” wives are far more usual.
52 Renard, “Petits arrangements avec l’égalitarisme”.
53 For this article, we focused mainly on international mobilities and experiences abroad for more than one year. However, we acknowledge that tourist mobility (short stay abroad) and especially experience of otherness in the home-country (living in a multi-cultural neighborhood, having a foreign partner, having parents who migrated, and so on) could have influence the biographical trajectory and the cosmopolitan practices.
54 We only refer to heterosexual and married couples, given that unmarried nor homosexual couples are not recognized by the local authorities. They cannot claim the status of dependents or live together officially.
55 Leonard, Expatriate Identities in Postcolonial Organizations (2010); Coles and Fechter, Gender and Family Among Transnational Professionals (2012).
56 The term “globetrotter” is used here to refer to individuals engaged in frequent and diversified international mobilities in terms of length of the stay, destinations and purposes of the mobility.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Clio Chaveneau
Clio Chaveneau is Associate Professor of Sociology at Sorbonne University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 38044, UAE, [email protected]
Hadrien Dubucs
Hadrien Dubucs is Associate Professor, Department of Geography and Planning at Sorbonne University, Paris, France, [email protected]