Application of nanotechnology in animal nutrition: Bibliographic review

Abstract

Nanotechnology is the science and engineering that involves designing, synthesizing, characterizing, and applying materials in devices and systems for nanometer-scale matter control. This review explores the application of nanotechnology in animal nutrition. Its applications in this field encompass the administration of nutrients, probiotics, and the diagnosis and treatment of diseases through drug delivery. Nanoparticles can be classified into inorganic (nano-minerals), organic (proteins, fat, and sugar nanomolecules), emulsions, dispersions, and nanoclays nanopolymers. The feeding of nanoparticles has demonstrated improvements in digestive efficiency, immunity, milk, meat, and egg quality. Nano-minerals offer low dose usage and improved bioavailability, making them an effective antibiotic alternative and can also be incorporated into natural feed ingredients. Enzyme nanoparticles are protein aggregates that show their unique properties (optical, electrical). Nanotechnology is utilized in feed processing to deliver nutrients to target organs through methods like encapsulation, chelating, packing, and nanotubes without altering taste or color. Nanoparticles could be prepared using nanotools in nanotechnique such as precipitation, emulsion cross-linking, spray-drying, emulsion-droplet coalescence, etc. Nanoparticle synthesis is performed by physical (high-energy ball milling, vapor deposition), chemical methods (forming colloids), and biological methods. Despite nanotechnology applications having potential contributions to simplify life and enhance the animal industry in feed, health, and production, the challenges in human, animal, and environmental issues are also stated as the side effects of the technology.

Keywords:

• animal feed
• nanotechnology
• nano-mineral
• enzyme nanoparticles

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

Nanotechnology primarily used in animal nutrition to produce nanominerals, particularly trace elements with limited bioavailability, which reduce intestinal mineral antagonism, excretion, and environmental contamination. Nanotubes are used to detect estradiol antibodies during oestrus, revolutionizing the veterinary and animal science fields by providing in-depth information about organisms’ inner bodies. Nanotechnology also improved various aspects of veterinary medicine, including disease detection, treatment, vaccine development, drug administration, and addressing nutrition and reproductive issues. Moreover, nanoparticles can be integrated into smart systems, comprehending medicinal and imaging chemicals and possessing stealth properties by adjusting their size, surface properties, and composition. In general, nanotechnology has the potential to transform agriculture and livestock development through resolving animal health, production, nutrition, reproduction, and hygienic practices and making it a new avenue for the new era.

1. Introduction

The term “Nano” stems from the Greek word “nanos” which means “dwarf” and was originally just a prefix substituting the factor of 10⁻⁹ for SI units (Grunwald, 2017). Nanotechnology involves designing, synthesizing, characterizing, and applying materials for nanoscale control in devices and systems, typically ranging from 1–100 nm (Pundir, 2015). It is a remarkable and rising technology with enormous potential to transform the agriculture and livestock sectors around the world (Marappan et al., 2017). Nanotechnology was developed to reduce the particle size to a couple nanometers in size (Loghman et al., 2012; Ognik et al., 2016). Nanotubes, nanofibres, nanorods, nanoparticles, and thin films have all been studied to identify their characteristics and possible uses (Pundir, 2015). Nanoparticles are the most extensively studied among all nanomaterials. Nano sensors, nanomaterials, microfluidics, and bioanalytical devices are examples of nanotechnology devices employed to enhance animal health, production, reproduction, disease treatment, and prevention (Kroubi et al., 2010; Tarafdar et al., 2013). By improving the production methods, the application of nanotechnology will revolutionize the livestock industry (Fesseha et al., 2020).

Nanotechnology uses in animal nutrition encompass the delivery of vitamins, mineral supplements, probiotics, and drugs, disease detection and treatment (Fesseha et al., 2020). Nanotechnology is used in animal feed in the form of nanominerals, nanoenzymes, as well as additional additives (Fesseha et al., 2020; Marappan et al., 2017; Pundir, 2015). Nanoparticles enhance nutrient absorption by reducing bivalent cations’ antagonistic impact, especially in tiny minerals, making them beneficial for livestock and poultry nutrition and improved feed and supplemental utilization (Marappan et al., 2017).

Despite the potential of nanotechnology to simplify life and enhance various aspects of animal industries, including feed, health, and production, the use of nanoparticles is accompanied by challenges in human, animal, and environmental concerns. Hence, this review thoroughly assesses the application of nanotechnology in the field of animal nutrition.

2. Methodology

In the course of performing a literature review, the author employed various strategies. Reputable journals from Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed databases were utilized for the compilation of this review. Additionally, the inclusion criteria primarily focused on articles published after 2019, with the exception of relevant facts and books.

3. Nano-technology and animal nutrition

3.1. Application of nanotechnology in animal nutrition

The use of various nanoparticles in the administration of medications, nutrition, probiotics, vitamins, and additives is a prime instance of nanotechnology in the feeding of animals (Fesseha et al., 2020; Marappan et al., 2017). Nanoparticles have also been used in poultry feed to reduce the amount of harmful bacteria in the chicken microbiome, while other types of nanoparticles have been proven to increase the growth of beneficial bacteria, hence improving performance as well as growth (Mahmoud, 2012). Employing the microencapsulation enhances the solubility of fat-soluble additives in feed, improve taste, and reduces the need for fat, salt, sugar, and preservatives (Weiss et al., 2010). Nanoparticles exhibit unique transport and uptake characteristics, resulting in increased absorption efficiencies (Zha et al., 2008). Notably, nanoparticles can be ingested directly through feed and water or integrated into feed packaging (Fesseha et al., 2020). Consequently, these nanoparticles have higher bioavailability, a lower dosage rate, and more sustained interactions with other substances.

3.1.1. Nano minerals

Nano-minerals provide low-dose antibiotic alternatives, improve growth, remove residues, reduce pollutants, and produce pollution-free animal products (Hett, 2004; Schmidt, 2009). The size of mineral nanoparticles should be smaller than 100 nanometers, which lets molecules to be taken faster than bigger particle size minerals and meet mineral demands to improve the efficiency of production (King et al., 2018; Tatli Seven et al., 2018; Wen et al., 2006). Furthermore, minerals as nanoparticles minimize intestinal mineral antagonism, lessening excretion and contamination. Although numerous nanominerals find applications in animal nutrition, Table 1 presents some specific examples.

Table 1. List of nano-minerals used in animal nutrition

No.	List of nano-minerals and associated attributes	Ref.
1	Manganese nanoparticles enhance chicken growth performance, antioxidant status, and bone attributes without affecting feed intake, weight gain, or efficiency. Mn is described for proper antioxidant and immune system function. Mn is also reported as cofactor of transferases, lyase, hydrolysis, and oxidoreductases, essential for mitochondrial antioxidant system, apoptosis, bone development, and cell structure	Patra and Lalhriatpuii (2020) Palomares (2022) Pasquini et al. (2022).
2	Calcium and phosphorus are crucial for bone growth in animals and poultry. Nano-minerals can improve feed conversion efficiency and body weight gain by 50%, but decrease calcium and phosphorus excretion. Nano-minerals provide low-dose antibiotic possibilities, increase growth, eliminate residues, reduce pollutants, and make pollutant-free animal products. Furthermore, plant-based diets contain substantial amounts of inaccessible P phytates (60–80% of total P), which are not utilized efficiently by chickens due to the absence of phytase enzymes.	Hassan et al. (2016), Samanta et al. (2019) Selle et al. (2009) Baharuddin et al. (2009)
3	Selenium is crucial for development, fertility, immune system, hormone metabolism, cell proliferation, and antioxidant defense. Nano-Se supplementation improves pH, ammonia, fatty acid levels, fertility, sperm quality, and egg production in layer chickens. Nano-Se at 0.3 mg/g dry food was reported to have greater physiological effects in layer chicks. Similarly, purine derivative nutrition utilization and urinary excretion were dramatically enhanced by nano-Se supplementation.	Ghaffarizadeh et al. (2022) Nabi et al. (2020) Shi et al. (2011)
4	Chromium is vital for insulin sensitivity and metabolism in animals. Nanocomposite in pigs reduces glucose, cholesterol, and fatty acid content, while increasing protein and lipoprotein production. Chromium propionate improves egg production and reduces heat exhaustion in poultry. Chromium has been suggested as it promotes insulin sensitivity in cells by activating insulin receptor kinase function. Egg quality, Cr persistence in the body, in the eggshell, and levels in the liver has all been observed to improve as a result of Cr-picolinate nanoparticle supplementation.	Bakshi and Panigrahi (2022) Anderson (2003) Hassan et al. (2020)
5	Copper is essential for metabolic activity, physiological functions, immunological responses, connective tissue development, and nerve function. Inorganic Cu sulphate and CuO nanoparticles improve growth performance, immunity, and reduce inflammatory responses in poultry. Cu nanoparticles included in basal meals decreased intake without influencing laying hen body weight, egg output, mass, or quality. Grill chicken with Cu supplementation lowered growth performance but decreased excretion. Through fast absorption, toxicity, and interaction, nano-Cu improves animal production performance.	Rossi et al. (2020) Patra and Lalhriatpuii (2020)
6	Silver nanoparticles in weaned pigs reduce coliform content, pathogen concentration, bacterial counts, growth, antibacterial capability, lymphatic organ weight, newborn weight loss, and liver lesions in grilled meats. A nanosilver feed additive substantially reduces the bacterial count in the digestive tract of poultry, lowering E. coli, Streptococcus, Salmonella, and mesophilic bacteria. Nano-silver supplementation of 20, 40, and 60 ppm feeds resulted in a dose-dependent reduction in the weight of the lymphatic organs.	Fondevila et al. (2009) Bhanja and Verma, (2021) Al-Sultan et al. (2022)
7	Nano-zinc supplementation enhances broiler bird immune status and bioavailability, inhibiting mycotoxic fungi growth and mycotoxins, reducing feed treatment hazards.	Hussan et al. (2022)
8	Iron is crucial for hemoglobin and oxygen transport, while Fe nanoparticles may improve chicken growth, haematology, and immunity. Research on their use is limited, but high doses can cause embryonic growth retardation and nerve damage. Fe nanoparticles and Fe-sulfate diets in quail breeders did not affect feed intake, egg mass production, quality, fertility, or chick growth.	Scott et al. (2018) Turgud and Narinç (2022)

3.2. Types of nano particles

Nanoparticles are reported to be divided into inorganic, organic emulsion, dispersion, and nano-clays as illustrated on Figure 1, based on the chemical characteristics they possess (Al-Beitawi et al., 2017; Bunglavan et al., 2014). Inorganic nanoparticles, including minerals, are used in nutrition, feed, and packaging industries for various applications, including feed packaging, water purification, antimicrobial packaging, and feed storage (Al-Beitawi et al., 2017; Bunglavan et al., 2014). By encapsulating proteins, fat, and sugar, organic nanoparticles improve feed functioning while enhancing nutritional value and bioavailability. They are employed as tiny particles and liposomes within feeds, as well as biosensors, identification markers, shelf-life extenders, and antimicrobials in feed packaging techniques (Ahmadi & Rahimi, 2011). Nano-emulsions, on the contrary, can stabilize and transfer active substances by enclosing the functional feed elements in an oil/water boundary or a continuous state (Agnihotri et al., 2004).

Figure 1. Summary of some types of nano particles.

Metals, polymers, natural chemicals, and nanostructured materials are the four areas of nanotechnology (Niemiec et al., 2021). Nanoparticles, a powder form of solid metal, can be utilized in various biotechnical applications by altering their physical characteristics through various engineering methods (Halperin, 1986). These particles have caught the curiosity of medical professionals due to their possible applications in imaging and antiseptic medications that lyse Gram-positive and Gram-negative walls of bacteria (Ramasamy et al., 2016). Certain metal nanoparticles are possibly better suited for external use to prevent buildup in the body, since a particular species might trigger detrimental dose toxicity reactions, although this is not necessarily possible (AshaRani et al., 2009; Kawata et al., 2009; Travan et al., 2009). Metal’s non-biodegradability is another major barrier for these particles.

Polymeric nanoparticles are synthesized or fractured into nanoparticle-sized bits that can be grafted onto other materials, potentially increasing biocompatibility and disintegration (Travan et al., 2009). Biocompatibility is highly useful to the medical and feed sectors because it has few to no detrimental effects on patients or customers, and polymeric nanoparticles with dose toxic effects, like metal nanoparticles, would have needed to be addressed (You et al., 2007).

3.3. Nano feed additives and its application in animal nutrition

Nano-additives are reported to be found in protein micelles, capsules, and natural feed ingredients (Khalid & Arif, 2022). Nano-capsules are also mentioned to enhance the bioavailability of essential oils, flavors, antioxidants (Ozogul et al., 2022). Encapsulating nanoparticles were used to protect minerals and micronutrients from oxidation and reducing unpleasant taste (Galanakis, 2019). Liposomal nano vesicles are stated to transport nutrients, enzymes, flavors, and antibacterial agents in food (Pateiro et al., 2021). Proteins and substances are also expressed to encapsulate nano-additives in micelles and oil spheres coated with bipolar molecules (Prasad et al., 2022). These are also stated to be suspended in water or encapsulated in oil, and nano-capsules contain omega-3 fish oil with unpleasant flavor (Liao et al., 2021).

Feed additives are essential raw materials in the modern feed industry, improving nutritional value, animal production efficiency, health, cost reduction, and product quality (Pandey et al., 2019).

3.4. Enzyme nanoparticles (ENPs) and its application in animal nutrition

Enzyme nanoparticles are described as clustered, protein-like structures with 10–100 nm dimensions, offering stability, biocompatibility, conductivity, and sensitivity (Xing et al., 2022). This particles have a variety of characteristics that improve enzyme-based sensor performance by enhancing the surface area (Eivazzadeh-Keihan et al., 2022). Nanoparticles are reported to cause denaturation and function loss due to protein/enzyme binding (Riley et al., 2022). To address this issue, enzyme molecules were aggregated to form nanoparticles and cross-linked within themselves in a regulated manner prior to immobilization (Liu et al., 2022). As a result, a potential technique for biosensor generation with increased analytical performance in terms of detection limit and current response has emerged (Thapa et al., 2022). Enzyme nanoparticles of horseradish peroxidase, glucose, cholesterol, and uricase were characterized for amperometric biosensor construction (Phetsang et al., 2019). Additionally, enzyme nanoparticles are reported to possess high catalytic activity and thermal stability (Khizar et al., 2022). Trypsin and chymotrypsin single enzyme nanoparticles are also stated by researchers (Hegedüs et al., 2020). Furthermore, enzyme nanoparticles are also reported to preserve activity and enhance thermal stability (Liu et al., 2022). Recent studies show that enzyme nanoparticles improve temperature tolerance and cellulose degradation (Gu et al., 2022). Animal feed enzymes break down indiscriminate components in feed products, potentially causing reduced meat or egg production, poor feed efficiency, and digestive issues (Islam et al., 2023).

3.5. Feed processing

Nanoscale particles are reported to have higher surface area, efficient nutrient absorption, and are ultrafine (Mobasser & Firoozi, 2016). Nanotechnology advances functional feed by encapsulating valuable ingredients, preventing loss during processing, and effectively delivering nutrients (Tiwari, 2022). The crucial element in the technology is the inclusion of nano capsules in the feed to deliver nutrients (Fajardo et al., 2022). The 50 nm nano-chelates are reported to efficiently deliver nutrients without affecting feed color or taste (Ahmed et al., 2023).

3.6. Green synthesis

The process that produces nanoparticles from plants is called “green synthesis”, and due to the fact that this technique uses plant extracts that contain proteins, carbohydrates, polyphenols, alkaloids, terpenoids, and other substances (Nadaf et al., 2022). Furthermore, the metal ions are stabilized by these molecules, and these plant sources, which were exploited by different researchers to synthesize these nanoparticles are as follows: Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens) has been used to produce green nanogold and silver particles from an array of plant resources (Khan et al., 2022), Lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) leaf extracts (Fiore et al., 2022), Camphor tree (Cinnamommum camphora) (Lee et al., 2022), neem (Azadirachta indica) (Reddy & Neelima, 2022), Aloe barbadensis (Aloe vera) (Cuvas-Limón et al., 2022), tamarind (Tamarindus indica) (Hasan et al., 2022), Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) (Sarwar et al., 2022), and extracts of Amla fruit (Emblica officinalis) (Kaushik et al., 2022; Majeed et al., 2022), oat (Avena sativa) (Azevedo et al., 2022), alfalfa (Medicago sativa) (Ahmadi et al., 2022), soaked Bengal gram bean (Cicer arietinum) (Rizvi et al., 2022) and Concoction (Piper nigrum) (Bawazeer et al., 2022). Plants such as alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and Chinese mustard (Brassica juncea) were used for silver and Ag-Au-Cu alloy nanoparticle synthesis (Song et al., 2022). Lemon extract is reported to be used as a reducing agent for producing manganese acetate, and curcumin serves as a stabilizing agent (Nguyen et al., 2022).

The environmentally friendly synthesis of nanoscale metals involves obtaining a plant extract, combining it with metal salt solution, reducing metallic particles, and performing filtration (Liu et al., 2023). This technique produces various metallic nanoparticles, including green ones, used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, appliances, food, aquaculture research, and agricultural goods (Kumar et al., 2023).

3.7. Preparation of enzyme nanoparticles to add in the animal diet

According to reports, enzyme nanoparticles are stated to be prepared through ethanol, glutaraldehyde, and cysteine/cysteamine treatment (Javid et al., 2022). Bovine serum albumin (BSA) proteins were aggregated into nanoparticles to produce soluble proteins through emulsification in plant oil (Taha et al., 2022); desolvation in ethanol or with natural salts, then cross-linking with glutaraldehyde (Li et al., 2008); anhydrous ethanol, glutaraldehyde, and ethanolamine’s simple coacervation (Shahidi & Hossain, 2022) and high pressure cross-linking in water and oil emulsion (Li et al., 2022). Nevertheless, so far, ethanol desolvation as well as concomitant glutaraldehyde cross-linking have been used to produce the enzyme nanoparticles (Fuchs et al., 2010).

Nanoparticles exhibit unique physical, chemical, and biological properties compared to larger particles, including material strength, solubility, conductivity, optical properties, thermal behavior, and catalytic activity (Alhashmi Alamer & Beyari, 2022; Khan & Hossain, 2022; Napagoda et al., 2022). In addition, nanoparticles have a larger surface-to-volume ratio as well as a greater number of atoms at the surface, which determine their main attributes (Haase et al., 2022; Joudeh & Linke, 2022). Nanoparticles’ structures and characteristics have significantly changed due to larger surface curvatures, more catalytically active sites, and more surface flaws (Lai et al., 2022). When compared to its bulk components, the physical and chemical characteristics of nanoparticles may alter their biological consequences.

Various methods for nanoparticle synthesis, such as physical, chemical, reactive precipitation, sol-gel, microemulsion, sonochemical, and supercritical chemical processing, have been developed and extensively documented in the literature (Prakash et al., 2022).

3.8. Mode of action

These nanoparticles can carry different components in a variety of environmental settings (Brewer et al., 2022). The synthesis of nanoparticles and minerals using this approach provides two notable advantages compared to conventional chemical methods (Kumar et al., 2017). Firstly, nanosized particles play a crucial role in the targeted delivery of nanoparticles because they can more easily traverse capillary walls (Wang et al., 2022). Secondly, as biodegradable ingredients are employed in this process, there is no risk of environmental pollution or chemical accumulation (Tian et al., 2022). According to (Mahdi et al., 2022) and (Alavi et al., 2022), nanoparticles increase biological interactions, extend compound residence time, reduce intestinal clearance, penetrate tissues, cross epithelial linings, and enable efficient uptake and delivery of active compounds. Nanoparticles used for developing nanostructured materials are created from a variety of sources, including naturally occurring substances like lipid- and protein-based nanoparticles (Harish et al., 2022). Nanoparticles can encapsulate and adhere to functional groups, acting as carriers for medications and nutrients (Mushtaq et al., 2022; Zhu et al., 2022). Nature-derived nanomaterials can appear to be a safer option, but if they are not carefully developed or dispersed properly in a biological system, they could cause hazardous or immunogenic reactions (Song et al., 2022).

3.9. Effect of inclusion nanoparticles on animal feed

3.9.1. Nutrient absorption and utilization

Natural or artificial nutrient nanoparticles can help cells absorb bioactive chemicals and stabilize them (Awuchi et al., 2022). A bioactive ingredient can be added directly to feed, but doing so includes a risk of deterioration and unavailability that can be avoided by using nanotechnology (Sagar et al., 2022). Although they can more easily pass through the intestinal mucosa due to their smaller size than microparticles, nanoparticles have a higher level of bioavailability than microparticles, especially in the digestive tract (Yun et al., 2013). By encapsulating nano particles with natural nanonutrients and artificial nanoparticles like casein, it is typically possible for them to bypass the body’s normal physiological pathways for nutrient transport via cell membranes and distribution in tissues (Das et al., 2023). To enable transmission from mother to child, some casein isoforms group together around calcium, protein, vitamin D, and other nutrients (Nadugala et al., 2022). The advantages of nanonutritional supplements may also help weaning animals and fowl grow larger. Previous studies by (Jia et al., 2018)) and (Wang et al., 2022) indicated that in mice and turkey, calcium nanoparticles produced denser bone when compared to microcalcium, respectively. By improving the bioavailability of the nutrient payload, nanoparticles designed for nutrient delivery could facilitate this supplementation and boost animal growth rates (Gopi & Balakrishnan, 2022). Due to their small particle size and large surface area in the intestinal lumen, nanoparticles often have better absorption (Kumari & Chauhan, 2022).

Nanotechnology revolutionizes animal production, breeding, disease treatment, and identity preservation, transforming medicine delivery methods and disease diagnosis (Prabha et al., 2022). Scientific research has been primarily focused on developing effective vaccines and utilizing nanoparticle technology in animal reproductive. Nanotechnology has significantly improved various aspects of veterinary medicine, including disease detection, treatment, vaccine development, drug administration, and addressing nutrition and reproductive issues (Poddar & Kishore, 2022). Ruminants can benefit from microminerals for improved digestion, metabolism, microbiota balance, and reproductive success.

3.9.2. Meat and egg quality

In addition, it has been explored whether utilizing nanoparticles could improve the quality of meat and eggs. For example (Poddar & Kishore, 2022), demonstrated that Chromium nanoparticles (200 g/kg) were fed to Finish pigs, and they were 14.06% slimmer at slaughter than the control pigs. Chitosan nanoparticles are also reported to improve pigs’ skeletal muscle mass and meat quality by lowering fatty acid synthase activity (Xiong et al., 2022). The incorporation of nanomaterials to animal feed or water can improve both the final product’s quality and the process of production, such as the quality of broiler meat, egg yolks, and eggshells (Dong et al., 2022). Concentration of nanoparticles makes sure that despite prolonged exposure, quality is not compromised (Mortensen et al., 2022). Consumers are likely to still favour meat and eggs made from animals fed nanoparticle supplements if they are improved or indistinguishable from the original product (Bhagat & Singh, 2022). Nevertheless, before using the nanoparticle additive in animal production, it is crucial to understand the role of the additive in a specific biological system and the byproducts from that system to make sure it is safe for consumption (Dupuis et al., 2022).

3.9.3. Milk production and quality

By developing new methods for identifying foodborne pathogens and shortening the time needed for drug withdrawal, nanotechnology can also assist and ensure that milk is of a quality that is safe for human consumption (Shenashen et al., 2022). Low levels of tilmicosin extend the half-life of the mastitis pathogen in mouse blood serum by employing hydrogenated castor oil-solid lipid nanoparticle carriers (Kareem et al., 2022). Nano-composites using anti-S. Aureus antibodies, gold nanoparticles, and magnetic nanoparticles can detect the presence of bacteria in milk in just forty minutes (Sung et al., 2013). These nanocomposites have an intriguing attribute in the antibody, whose selectivity and specificity may be altered to capture a range of diseases (Ozkan-Ariksoysal, 2022). Toxins in milk can be found utilizing polyclonal antibodies and gold nanoparticle immune chromatographic strips within 10 minutes (using the cancer-causing aflatoxin M₁) (Rastogi et al., 2022). While removing potentially dangerous pollutants from milk has received most of the attention, adding supplements containing nanoparticles directly to cow’s milk for human consumption has generated some interest (Abdelnour et al., 2021). Comprising oyster shell nano powder in milk is reported to raise the calcium concentration from 100 to 120 mg/mL, and the level is better suited for growing youngsters and postmenopausal women (Abdelnour et al., 2021). After 16 days of storage at 4°C, adding calcium from nanopowdered oyster shell to milk did not have a negative impact on its sensory or physicochemical properties (Lee et al., 2015).

3.9.4. Immune responses of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT)

Innate defenses, acting as barriers, are present in the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) aggregates of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) (Madakka et al., 2020). The interpretation of nano particle ingestion studies is influenced by the biological and physicochemical characteristics of the GIT (Mittag et al., 2022). The biological effects of a particle are influenced by factors such as size, surface area, number, aggregation/agglomeration state, charge, and surface coatings (Fubini et al., 2010). The proposal suggests a set of minimal specifications for nanomaterial characterization for toxicological investigations (Cebadero-Domínguez et al., 2022). Factors such as particle size, distribution, aggregation state, form, chemical composition, surface area, purity, and stability are some of the key considerations (Bergin & Witzmann, 2013). Absorption and biological responses are also impacted by oxidant production and rate of breakdown (Sun et al., 2022). In vivo experiments can introduce significant heterogeneity due to species, strains, diet, housing, dosage time, circadian rhythms, and endogenous microbiome (Lecour et al., 2022). Careful reporting of these factors can help to increase transparency and make it easier to reconcile inconsistent results between studies (Liu et al., 2022). The Metabolomics Standards Initiative and arrive guidelines aim to standardize metadata for in vivo experiment parameters in particle toxicity studies (Sumner et al., 2007).

The gastrointestinal system, one of the largest immunological organs in the body, typically accounts for up to 70% of an animal’s immune response activity (Choct, 2009). The performance of animals is significantly influenced by a healthy gut. Thus, the performance of trace mineral dietary supplements and effective management can help achieve this goal (Sampath et al., 2023).

3.10. Side effects of nanoparticles

Nanoparticles are reported to increase bioavailability risk, inflammatory gastrointestinal diseases, altered nutrient bioavailability, and potential effects during heating or storage (Elnahal et al., 2022). Linking experimental nanoparticle toxicity to real-world human health risks is challenging due to the lack of precise environmental information (Bergin & Witzmann, 2013). It is especially challenging to extrapolate results from in vivo toxicity studies’ higher shorter-term doses to the expected consequences of chronic, minimum dose exposures (Doe et al., 2006). According to review done by (Yip et al., 2022) consuming nanoparticles appeared to have low toxicity for in vivo tests. No side effects were noted for silver nanoparticles at levels lower than 125 mg/kg (Yan et al., 2022). Up to 5,000 mg/kg of TiO₂ nanoparticles were also reported to be tolerated without any negative effects (Javed et al., 2022). In vitro studies show cytotoxicity and increased membrane permeability, while in vivo studies show no effects except at high doses (Wang et al., 2021).

4. Challenges and limitations of nanotechnology

Nanotechnology advances disease detection, prevention, and treatment in animals, despite potential toxic side effects (Zain et al., 2022). It is possible that exposure to artificial nanoparticles will have different consequences than exposure to naturally occurring nanoparticles (Kessler, 2011). Because of their size or protective coatings, engineered nanoparticles are stated to be better to avoid the body’s defenses (Liu & Huang, 2022).

Since nanoparticles are often incorporated in finished goods, they rarely come into touch with people, animals, or the environment (Hemathilake & Gunathilake, 2022). Nanotechnologies face an array of challenges, including risks to the environment from the release of nanoparticles into the environment, risks to human health and safety (for both workers and consumers), risks related to the self-replication of nanomachines and human enhancement, risks to business from the marketing of nanotechnology-enabled products, and risks related to the protection of intellectual property (Chaturvedi et al., 2022). Additional research is also required on the hazards to human health, for the animal health and the environment brought on by exposure to manmade nanoparticles (Liu et al., 2022).

5. Review gaps and future lines of work

In the coming years, nanotechnology research is poised to revolutionize the realms of animal nutrition, health, and production. With its profound influence on various aspects of human life, nanotechnology is considered an impressive tool in contemporary society. A notable area of progress in nanomedicine is the utilization of nanoparticles for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of complex diseases such as cancer. The field of nanotechnology in animal production is evolving and offering the potential to enhance livestock feed. Nevertheless, the substitution of antibiotics in feed will necessitate time due to the imperative processes of in vivo testing and adherence to regulatory requirements.

6. Conclusions and recommendations

In conclusion, nanotechnology presents a promising avenue for enhancing the development of livestock and poultry by improving aspects such as health, feed components, additives, feed processing, food safety, and quality control, with a notable focus on mineral nanoparticles in current research. However, there is a notable gap in the exploration of other nutrients at the nanoscale level. A potential alternative to the chemical synthesis of nanoparticles is the biological method, showing promise in terms of effectiveness and biosafety to prevent harm to animals, humans, and environmental ecosystems. Nevertheless, further extensive research is imperative to fully understand and ensure the efficacy and safety of this approach.

Author contribution

Concept, synthesis, write-up

Availability of data and materials

The dataset that supports the findings of this review is included in the article.

Acknowledgments

The author acknowledges the potential editors and reviewers for their valuable input on the manuscript.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Supplementary material

Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2023.2290308

Additional information

Funding

This work was not supported by any funding.

Notes on contributors

Yohannes Gelaye

Yohannes Gelaye is a lecturer and researcher in the Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture and Natural resources, Debre Markos University, Ethiopia. He did his Master’s degree in Horticulture at Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia. Since December 2014, Yohannes is working at Debre Markos University and teaching courses like Plant biotechnology, Plant propagation, Design and agricultural experimentation, Vegetable and fruit crops production and management, Ornamental horticulture, Plant physiology, Coffee production, processing and quality control, Crop protection, and Nutrition sensitive agriculture. His research interest is Biotechnology, Biochar in agriculture, Adapting to drought stress, Byproduct utilization, Climate change induced disease and pests, Drought induced physio-morphological, molecular and biochemical changes, Agro-nanotechnology, Artificial Intelligence, Crops and soil improvement, Postharvest science and technology, Food safety, and Nutrition, and food security.