Strengthening the concordance between entrepreneurship orientation with indigenous cultural values

Abstract

In light of implementing Western models to develop entrepreneurship capabilities and capital in the Arab Gulf, it has become apparent that a more nuanced and better contextually-situated approach to entrepreneurship development is recommended when dealing with such deeply traditional communities. This paper seeks to provide insight into the relationship between Western and local orientations in terms of entrepreneurship in the Sultanate of Oman. Twenty face-to-face semi-structured interviews were conducted with contemporary Omani entrepreneurs, revealing that these Western Entrepreneurship Orientation (EO) models are perceived as potentially threatening the integrity and harmony of local communities. This perception causes partial resistance toward integrating Western dimensions of EO into the indigenous mindset. Hence, this paper strives to, firstly, identify the Omani cultural orientations that directly impact the application of Western dimensions of EO. Secondly, this paper proposes an alternative scenario for entrepreneurship development through strengthening dimensions of EO taking account of and blending with Omani cultural orientations. The paper will add to the body of literature exploring the impact of indigenous cultures on entrepreneurial orientation. Results offer recommendations to decision-makers and entrepreneurs from Oman and other countries with similar socio-cultural profiles on boosting a culture of entrepreneurship that aligns with preserving cultural heritage and local customs.

Keywords:

• Entrepreneurship orientation
• indigenous culture
• values
• entrepreneurship development

Reviewing Editor:

• Len Tiu Wright, De Montfort University Faculty of Business and Law, United Kingdom

SUBJECTS:

• Organizational Communication
• Culture & Development
• Rural Development
• Regional Development
• Business, Management and Accounting
• Sociology & Social Policy

Introduction

To achieve economic diversification and offer more employment opportunities for the local population, the Arab Gulf countries started actively promoting entrepreneurship (Bilal & Hussien, 2019). As a result of various government initiatives directed towards boosting entrepreneurship and building a support system for entrepreneurs, the number of SMEs and start-ups has increased in the GCC region. For example, in Qatar, with a population of 2.6 million, the number of SMEs nearly doubled from 3.6% in 2019 to 6.78% of the total number of enterprises in 2021. However, this increase in Oman, given its larger population, is rather insignificant compared to its neighbor - from 2% in 2019 to 2.84% in 2021of the total number of enterprises (Global Economic Monitor, n.d.). This fact raises a question - why does the local population show little interest in starting their own businesses despite the combined forces of the public and private sectors. It is worth noting that the slow growth in SMEs comes amidst national efforts such as entrepreneurship-driven training programs and initiatives aligned with Omani Vision 2040 Strategic Plan, state-of-the-art business incubation and acceleration facilities, and established entities providing start-up opportunities for SMEs (Baporikar, 2015).

The available body of literature concerned with the relationship between indigenous cultures and modern state entrepreneurship development is limited especially in relation to the Arab world. Our study adds to the scholarly discussion on how to preserve the well-being of indigenous communities in the Arab countries and at the same time, how to foster economic opportunities of the states alongside with the preservation of indigenous values and business practices. This research also informs literature on hybrid models of entrepreneurship that are often disadvantaged due to the lack of empirical studies exploring their complexities, impacts, and potentials.

Entrepreneurship in the GCC countries, with their extensive and ancient tribal systems which are integrated into the modern state, takes a hybrid form and represents a mixture of indigenous and non-indigenous types of entrepreneurship. Indigenous entrepreneurship is defined as a system where business ventures are created, managed, and developed by indigenous people whose communities draw motivation and resources from their land, the local environment, traditions, and cultural and religious values. These communities manifest a strong desire to retain their cultural identity, community engagement, and heritage (Colbourne, 2021; Lindsay, 2005; Peredo & Chrisman, 2006). Such communities’ holistic and non-monetary orientations, together with a strong concern for the community, differentiate it from non-indigenous entrepreneurship that penetrates local communities through various government-led training programs and initiatives promoting entrepreneurship and innovation (Maritz & Foley, 2018; Morley, 2014; Spencer et al., 2016; Tamtik, 2020).

In Oman, the indigenous model of entrepreneurship is steadily if imperceptibly more popular and widespread even in the urban areas. This is due primarily to government policies to preserve and sustain cultural heritage and traditional businesses related to farming, fishing, and crafts. Secondly, Islam, the main religion of the county, promotes family and community values such as solidarity, trust, non-violence, non-interference in other people’s affairs, generosity, justice, respect, and more. A large number of entrepreneurs have offices in Muscat, but were born and raised in rural localities where the traditions and indigenous cultural and social values have been enacted and sustained throughout their childhood and into adulthood.

Due to the heterogeneity of Omani communities, it would be unfair to generalize entrepreneurship values and orientations among Omanis. Depending on the geographical position, history, tribal context, and openness to the external world, some communities are more entrepreneurial than others. However, as a shared feature, all Omani communities are preoccupied with ensuring they run their business in line with Islamic values and Omani social conduct, putting reputation above money and sustaining pride in Omani identity. Business ventures in Oman are not just a matter of an entrepreneur and his/her team, they also involve a larger circle of people such as an entrepreneur’s extended family as well as their cultural values and practices (Lindsay, 2005).

The literature on indigenous entrepreneurship claims that indigenous culture continues to shape modern-day entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions (Reihana et al, 2007; Foley, 2010; Klyver & Foley, 2012). A number of studies have perceived indigenous culture as a hindrance to entrepreneurship and used it as an explanation for the low number of business ventures by indigenous entrepreneurs compared to non-indigenous ones. For example, Lindsay (2005) suggests that the reasons behind the low rate of businesses in indigenous cultures are the consequences of their weak orientation towards achievement, innovation, personal control, self-esteem, and opportunity recognition. Peredo and McLean (2013) consider that indigenous communities are collective in nature and strongly influenced by indigenous cultures incompatible with business success (Peredo & McLean, 2013).

In relation to Oman, Belwal et al. (2015) confirm low entrepreneurial intentions, which they attribute to a lack of knowledge, an unwillingness to take risks and/or a lack of confidence. Thomas (2017) also highlights risk aversion together with a strong dependency on the community and the government, as the main features blocking entrepreneurship development. Matriano and Suguku (2015) point to a high uncertainty avoidance index and collectivistivism as two Omani cultural features that negatively impact entrepreneurship dissemination. According to Redpath and Nielsen (1997), collectivism guides the locus control of Arab culture in general and the Omani population in particular when individual interests and aspirations are subordinate to collective ones leading to the perceived image of entrepreneurs as individuals rupturing the fabric of social equality, collective responsibility and shared gain in their pursuit of personal control.

Some researchers make an attempt to present culture as an enabler of entrepreneurship development. Widjojo and Gunawan (2020) consider traditional culture as a competitive advantage that is unique and difficult to imitate. De Massis et al. (2016) believe that indigenous knowledge can serve as a source of innovation. Chew et al. (2022) named culture as one of the key dimensions shaping the values and behavior of enterprises in society. Dauletova and Al-Busaidi (2022) argue that one of the most influential drivers of entrepreneurial success in rural Oman is centered around Omani cultural heritage and is fueled by specific factors and values of Islamic and Omani culture.

The construct of EO has five dimensions: innovation; risk-taking; proactiveness; autonomy, and competitive aggressiveness (Lumpkin & Dess, 1996; Rauch et al., 2009; Mthanti & Ojah, 2017). These dimensions have been proven to positively contribute to growth, competitive advantage, and superior performance of start-ups and SMEs (Kraus, et al, 2012). The construct has been studied in relation to both multi-person businesses (Gupta and Gupta, 2015) and individual entrepreneurs (Koe, 2016; Hassan et al., 2021; Robinson and Stubberud, 2014). In our research, we argue that the construct can be effectively applied to a group level as well as to individual entrepreneurs.

Conceptually, the paper is built on the model of indigenous entrepreneurial orientation (Mrabure et al., 2021), which offers three forms of EO: culturally constituted EO where business practices are based on indigenous cultural values and beliefs; Western EO with business practices anchored on Western cultural values and orientations; and hybrid EO aims to create a balance in social and profitability goals within indigenous contexts. The worldview and entrepreneurial ecosystem impact both aspiring or existing entrepreneurs’ choices of which EO form is most suitable for them.

The purpose of this study is, firstly, to identify the Omani cultural orientations which directly impact the application of dimensions of EO, and secondly, to propose an alternative scenario for entrepreneurship development in Oman through the local culture orientations strengthening the EO dimensions which are currently alien to the Omani context but which could then be accepted and implemented. (Bruton et al, 2018).

The paper is structured as follows: we start with describing the socio-economic, socio-cultural and historical background of Oman as a backdrop against which the analysis of the culture of entrepreneurship in the country has been performed. Then we focus on the traditional value system and social conduct norms linked with entrepreneurship in Oman. Next, we outline the theoretical background and applied methodology used to collect results and develop findings which lead to the discussion section where we focus on recommendation for Omani policy-makers.

The historical background of Omani entrepreneurship

Omani entrepreneurship has a long and complicated history where the renaissance of trade and commerce in the country was followed by a long period of oblivion associated with the socio-economic decline. Only with Sultan Qaboos bin Said’s ascendance to the throne in 1970, combined with the rise of the oil industry (1967), did Oman see renewed economic growth and modernization (Hoffman, 2012).

Oil has been the economy’s main driver since Oman began commercial production in 1967. The oil sector supports Oman’s modern and extensive infrastructure, including electrical utilities, roads, public education, and healthcare facilities. According to the National Center for Statistics and Information (NCSI, 2018), the oil industry is the primary driver of Oman’s economy, contributing up to 80% of government revenue, 60% of export value, and 40% of GDP in 2017.

The reforms initiated by the late Sultan Qaboos bin Said brought prosperity to the country. However, this prosperity has turned Oman into a rentier state (Ramady & Kropf, 2015), resulting in reduced interest in entrepreneurship but an increased preference for government jobs (Steiner, 2020).

With the new ruler Haitham bin Tariq Al Said in power, entrepreneurship is once again viewed as an opportunity to: tackle unemployment; enhance the diversification of the country’s economy; and continue with the country’s modernization by bringing technology-based start-ups into the industry, as reflected in Oman Vision 2040 (Oman Vision 2040, n.d.). The initiative to promote entrepreneurship as a strategy to support the national diversification plan has driven the Omani government’s efforts at economic diversification to boost the number of SMEs owned by the local labor force, encourage Omani nationals to work in the private sector, and establish a different, more stable, and sustainable economy (Tanfeedh, 2017).

Currently, Oman is going through a challenging transition period towards a post-oil future. In the framework of this transition, Oman is practicing two forms of entrepreneurship – indigenous and non-indigenous. The first is initiated and sustained by the rural communities, while the second is influenced by the state’s leading role towards modernization. Within the Omani context, no conflict between the two forms of entrepreneurship has been observed, while neighboring countries have been struggling with tense relationships between merchants and rulers (Rabi, 2006).

Entrepreneurship and Oman’s traditional value system

Culture and the economic environment have always been important catalysts for innovation and entrepreneurship in their various manifestations. Entrepreneurs can map their business aims and define enablers and deterrents by understanding the community’s cultural characteristics and economic situation (Alanzi, et al, 2022). Religion is among the most significant and distinctive features of Arab culture. Most parts of Arab culture are influenced by religion, according to numerous studies (Kalliny and Gentry, 2007; Shahin and Wright, 2004). Islam is said to have had the greatest influence on Islamic nations’ cultures, particularly those of Arab nations. Islam, which is seen as a comprehensive way of life, is the foundation of the Arabic language, social life, and traditions (Kavoossi, 2000). Therefore, it is argued that the religious background of Muslim Arab entrepreneurs impacts their attitudes toward work and entrepreneurial activities (Dana, 2009).

Muslims place a high value on morality and virtue because they represent the religion and the Prophet Mohammed’s mission. According to Islam, entrepreneurs who identify as Muslims are obliged to uphold high standards of morals, ethics, and virtue to achieve ‘Falah’ (the goal of life). They frequently make an effort to exhibit high moral character, as the Prophet did, who was characterized in the Qur’an as having strong morality, virtue, and ethics (Beekun, 2012).

Another value of Islam that is connected to entrepreneurial activities is hard work. Hard work is highly regarded in Islam, to the extent that it is associated with martyrdom, as suggested in the following Hadeeth ‘On the judgement day, the truthful, honest Muslim merchant will stand side by side with the martyrs’. According to the interpretation of these teachings, Islam views perseverance and hard work as virtues that are necessary for growth and success (Ali, 1988; Possumah et al., 2013).

Islam places a great value on Sidik (truthfulness), and Amanah (trustworthiness), and the Prophet is usually referred to as ‘Mohammad, Al Sadiq, Al Ameen’, or ‘Mohammed, the Honest, True, and Reliable’. Muslims strive to live their lives in accordance with the Prophet, who exemplified the highest standards of honesty and integrity in his daily life. Muslims do this by being honest in their words, deeds, and feelings as well as true to their beliefs and faith. At work, truthfulness and trustworthiness also entail rejecting all manifestations of corruption and deceit (Tlaiss, 2015).

While Islam has laid the ethical foundation for business practices, the traditional indigenous culture tries to protect the local population from dangers and threats from the external world. Hence the appreciation of and reliance on the community in all aspects of everyday life activities, avoidance of interpersonal conflicts, and a philosophy of non-interference in other people’s affairs (Jones & Ridout, 2015).

However, being successful in performing the role of a ‘protector of the people’, indigenous culture is less effective in accommodating modern entrepreneurial orientations. According to Porter (2004), cultural factors have closed and may continue to close the door for new business in Oman. In its honest pursuit to give its best to the community, the local culture remains risk-averse and highly dependent. A high government post or high military rank is perceived more favorably by society than being a successful entrepreneur. There is a scarcity of successful, self-made entrepreneur role models in Omani society, and even those few role models have not received much media attention.

Based on the review mentioned above, based on Omani cultural values and EO dimensions, and based on an attempt to understand the local context in light of the indigenous entrepreneurial orientation model, we propose the following research questions (RQs):

RQ1: What are the key concerns of the local entrepreneurs regarding the compatibility of EO dimensions with indigenous entrepreneurial values?

RQ2: Which indigenous entrepreneurial orientation form is most suitable for Omani entrepreneurs?

Methodology

In order to answer the proposed research question about the key concerns of the local population regarding the implementation of EO dimensions as a driver of entrepreneurship development, we selected an interpretivism approach using semi-structured interviews to understand better how Omani communities and entrepreneurs make sense of their world (Lindlof and Taylor, 2002).

Participants

Twenty contemporary entrepreneurs operating in urban areas of Oman but originating from rural localities were recruited for the study using purposeful snowball sampling (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002; Noy, 2008). The research team recruited the interviewees by using personal contacts; reviewing their public social media profiles, if any (e.g., Twitter, Instagram); and also depending on referrals provided by the previously interviewed informants. Interviewees who met the following criteria were recruited: to be Omani nationals and to run a start-up or an SME in Muscat governorate. The descriptive statistics of the participants is summarized in Table 1 below.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of participants and their businesses (N = 20 Interviewees).

Variables	Percentage
Biological Sex
Male	55%
Female	45%
Age
19–24 years old	35%
25–34 years old	55%
35–45 years old	10 %
Education
University graduates	90%
University drop-outs	10%
Business Tenure
10 years and above	65%
9 years and below	35%
Business Type
Technology-based start-ups	45%
SMEs	45%
Pre-incubated start-ups	10%
Markets
Local market (inside the country)	91%
International market	9%
Number of employees
4–8	40%
9–15	60%
Place of origin
rural	80%
urban	20%

Interview procedure

Before eliciting in-depth stories and insights, the participants were first asked several general questions related to their demographics and business-profile. They were followed by the questions pursuing the goal of eliciting information about the participants’ views about enabling and inhibiting factors related to EO. These questions included but were not limited to: ‘What aspects of cultural values keep you sustain your business? Have you done business with Western entrepreneurs? Do you see any differences in how they approach the notion of entrepreneurship from yours? How? Which value from Omani culture and/or Islam drives your entrepreneurial mindset the most? Could you share an example manifesting this value?

After receiving the participants’ informed consent, all the interviews were conducted and voice-taped in English. On average, interviews lasted between one hour and one hour and a half. We stopped recruiting new participants after reaching data saturation in which no new significant themes occurred (Lindlof and Taylor, 2002).

Data analysis

We applied the constant comparative method (CCM) suggested by Glaser and Strauss (1967) to analyze the data. We read the transcripts and labeled the categories. Emerging categories were then compared to the transcripts of other entrepreneurs. We then re-read the transcripts to find patterns in the data to develop more consistent codes and categories. Using the three coding stages, open coding, axial coding, and properties identification, as suggested by Lindlof and Taylor (2002) allowed us to develop categories better. The data’s trustworthiness and credibility were assured by auditing transcripts and finding areas of agreement in understanding data.

Results

The narratives obtained informed the researchers about key cultural orientations of Omani communities (see Table 2) that are found to be lacking alignment with universal EO dimensions. The identified orientations are seen as triggered by concerns and anxieties experienced by the local population. Overall, the EO dimensions are found to be perceived as potentially threatening the integrity and harmony of local communities causing partial resistance towards the integration of EO dimensions into the indigenous mindset. The findings of the current research confirm that one of the reasons behind the local population’s tendency to be careful with choosing a career as an entrepreneur lies in perceiving western-born entrepreneurship orientations (Lumpkin & Dess, 2001; Semrau et al, 2016; Mthanti & Ojah, 2017; Stambaugh et al, 2017) as not properly aligned with the indigenous culture and social conduct of the Omani community (see Table 3). Specifically, we argue that the dimensions of EO fail to sufficiently address the concerns of local people and do not fit the image of a ‘good entrepreneur’. In terms of Omani scenarios, the hybrid form seems to be the most optimal choice due to its intention to bridge individual and communal goals and aspirations.

Table 2. Description of emerging themes.

Code	Theme	Description	Frequency
cautious attitude to change anxiety towards failure a feeling of being uncomfortable with taking responsibility	Orientation towards stability	The theme reflects the value the Omani population attaches to maintaining stability in the community	15
avoid damaging your own ‘face’ or the ‘face’ of the other avoid damaging the relationship with the other	Orientation towards relationship	The theme points at the tendency of the Omani community to avoid criticism and maintain amicable relationships with neighbors	10
avoid drawing attention to oneself avoid interfering in other people’s affairs	Orientation towards privacy	The theme incorporates the privacy concerns of the Omani community	10
avoid damaging the social hierarchy	Orientation toward the ascribed status	The theme highlights the importance of preserving social hierarchy and status, formalities, and tribal codes of behaviour in the community	7
avoid rapturing the social fabric and ties feeling uncomfortable with modernity / novelty	Orientation towards the elders and ancestral heritage	The theme celebrates the elders and their role in observing the adherence of the community to the traditional formalities and tribal code of behaviour	7

Table 3. EO dimensions, Omani community concerns with corresponding cultural orientations and EO dimensions strengthened by Omani cultural orientations.

EO Dimensions	Omani Community Concerns and Anxieties	Omani Cultural Orientations	EO Dimensions Strengthened by Omani Cultural Orientations
Innovativeness (willingness to experiment with promising new ideas; drive for novelty)	cautious attitude to change feeling uncomfortable with modernity/novelty	Orientation towards stability Orientation towards the elders and ancestral heritage	Gradual innovativeness with visualizations
Proactiveness (taking the initiative, seizing opportunities)	feeling of being uncomfortable with taking responsibility avoid drawing attention to oneself	Orientation towards stability Orientation towards privacy	Proactiveness with shared responsibility
Risk-taking (uncertainty, responsibility)	feeling of being uncomfortable with taking responsibility avoid drawing attention to oneself avoid damaging the social hierarchy avoid damaging the relationship with the other	Orientation towards stability Orientation towards privacy Orientation toward ascribed status Orientation towards relationship	‘Safe’ risk-taking
Autonomy (independence, decision-making)	avoid damaging the relationship with the other avoid damaging the social hierarchy - avoid rapturing the social fabric and ties feeling of being uncomfortable with taking responsibility anxiety towards failure	Orientation towards relationship Orientation toward the ascribed status Orientation towards the elders and ancestral heritage Orientation towards stability	Selective autonomy
Competitive Aggressiveness (individualistic, seeking opportunities, future-oriented, dynamic)	cautious attitude to change feeling of being uncomfortable with taking responsibility avoid damaging the relationship with the other avoid damaging the social hierarchy avoid rapturing the social fabric and ties avoid drawing attention to oneself	Orientation towards stability Orientation towards relationship Orientation toward ascribed status Orientation towards the elders and ancestral heritage Orientation towards privacy	Competitive aggressiveness at the industry level

In this regard, we are proposing to Strengthening the Concordance between EO dimensions and Omani cultural orientations in order to facilitate the process of building them into the mindset of the Omani community and aspiring entrepreneurs. The following sections offer more elaboration about the misalignment between the universal EO dimension and the indigenous EO.

Omani cultural orientations

In order to ensure the reliability of the study, the first two authors rated their agreement level. We performed this process by estimating the reliability by dividing the number of agreements by the sum of agreement and disagreement, as suggested by Miles and Huberman (1994). We achieved a consensus rate of 90%. As shown in Table 2, the five occurring themes emerged from the analyzed data.

Theme 1: Omani cultural orientation toward stability

Omani cultural orientation towards stability has been devised based on the concerns and behaviors communicated to the researchers when asked to share their narratives about the community’s perceptions of their careers as entrepreneurs. Their responses show that the interviewees’ families and their circle of friends and relatives have opposed their career choice due to the local community’s cautious attitude to change, responsibility, and failure.

Feeling uncomfortable with change has been mentioned as the leading cause of low entrepreneurial uptake among Omanis. Omani communities tend to steer clear of initiatives and projects requiring the community to change to accommodate the demands and compromises triggered by a new business venture. Moreover, the interviewed entrepreneurs in the tourist sector reported issues with running a business in this sector primarily due to the fact that they have to deal with locals in tourist areas who are often from closed communities. The local communities have cultural values that are not aligned with those of tourists from different cultures. Due to cultural inappropriateness and lack of cultural competency by foreign tourists, the locals in some regions may show no interest in accommodating or making any concessions to the entrepreneurs who operate in the tourism sector.

Anxiety towards failure has been named as another inhibitor of entrepreneurial uptake. The interviewed entrepreneurs reported that their families were terrified by their decision to become an entrepreneur instead of looking for a government job after obtaining a bachelor’s degree. A couple of the interviewees, who had dropped out of the university and had been through the trauma caused by their parents’ lack of support and alienation after they learned about their kids’ intention to choose an entrepreneur’s career, couldn’t control the tears when remembering those days. In Omani communities, the common reply to a child’s decision to become an entrepreneur would be similar to the one quoted by one of the interviewees, ‘Look at your uncle, he tried to have a business once, and he failed. You do not want to be like him’.

Another respondent recalled that his father was initially against his business idea: ‘My father wanted me to do the usual Omani things – to graduate, get married, get a government job’. The reason is the stigma attached to a career as an entrepreneur. Entrepreneurs are perceived as failures who couldn’t get a government job that guarantees financial stability. As a result, the prospects of getting married diminish for entrepreneurs in quantity and quality. They have to prove to their families that they can be financially self-sufficient and independent without a government job in order to regain trust and be accepted back into the family circle; as one participant stated, ‘After two years in the business, when my family saw that I had bought a car, land, an apartment and made a name in the industry, they realized that I can be independent… they then decided to make peace with me’.

Failure is associated with losing face, humiliating yourself, and bringing shame to the family (damaging the reputation of the local community). Hence failed business ventures are normally put under the carpet. As one of the interviewees suggested,

romanticizing entrepreneurship, focusing only on success stories, and hiding the failures is dangerous as people do not see all the hard work that goes into building and sustaining a business. In the media, there is a huge emphasis on companies that managed to scale up very fast. We are taking a one-in-a-million example and are pushing it on everyone creating the illusion that being an entrepreneur is a piece of cake.

This results in keeping the community’s expectations towards the fast attainment of entrepreneurial success high while depriving entrepreneurs of learning from their own failed experiences as well as from the experiences of other entrepreneurs that went through a similar journey. Further consequences of such an approach include the absence of a support network that would have softened the blow if it had been in place by seeing that a business owner is not alone and that there are other people. The findings suggest the lack of role models in entrepreneurship from the same localities with aligned cultural values.

Taking responsibility is perceived as risky; hence, it can potentially lead to socially undesirable scenarios. The interviewees admitted that avoiding taking responsibility for a decision saves them from potential conflicts. Moreover, in the case of a failed project that they have initiated or assumed responsibility for, they might be held accountable, which could lead to the loss of reputation. One of the consequences of the unwillingness to take responsibility is the lack of interest in investing in innovation and innovative start-ups. The interviewees confirmed that their companies are experiencing difficulty finding investors and suffering from a lack of trust and support from large corporations and enterprises.

Theme 2: Orientation toward relationships

The analyzed interviews highlight the power of the community over individuals and the importance of social ties and relationships that regulate the community’s life. As a result, a strong aversion to conflict guides the behavior of the local population. One of the behavioral strategies to avoid conflict is to refrain from criticism. Omani mentality does not deal well with criticism fearing to lose ‘face’ or to inflict the loss of ‘face’ guided by the intention to preserve social harmony. People do not reprimand others openly and do not interfere in the affairs of others (Eickelman, 1984). Consequently, Omanis would not give you honest feedback due to reluctance to give bad news or criticism. They firmly believe in the ‘saving face’ philosophy that allows them to respect strict social norms and maintain peaceful community existence. As admitted by the interviewees, the result is that a number of start-up owners are lulled into an illusion that their business strategies and practices are invulnerable. Giving timely constructive criticism would have helped entrepreneurs adjust and improve their original business strategy or even pivot from the originally-chosen business direction.

The role relationships play in Omani communities, and the concern for damaging the established social network can also be exemplified by a system of loans and a re-occurring practice of avoiding insisting on settling debts. One of the interviewees in the possession of a small retail shop confessed that he had to close his business because his local customers would often take his merchandise without immediate payment and it would take them a month or two to settle the bill. He felt shy to ask for money to be paid for services or products if the customers did not volunteer to do so, exemplifying how ‘social ties are more important to me than money and I do not want to be stigmatized as a person fixated on money’.

Theme 3: Orientation toward privacy

Seeking privacy has been a well-known feature of Arab communities. In Oman, it has been intensified due to the value attached to the Omani unwritten social conduct norms based on the sample of the current study. Traditionally, in Omani communities attracting unnecessary attention by a person to his or her individual self breaks the code of modesty and humbleness, values regarded highly by the local population. In a study conducted in Oman, researchers found that attention-seeking behavior is moderated or changed as a function of gender (Al-Busaidi et al., 2022). Regardless of gender, by becoming an entrepreneur, public attention is unavoidable. Therefore, Omanis with the intention of becoming an entrepreneur find it hard to reconcile the community’s disapproval of excessive attention associated with the status of an entrepreneur and the need to stand out, to be visible, to be in the center of attention as an essential component of the concept of entrepreneurial success. The heightened public persona of a successful entrepreneur triggers caution and responsibility for his/her social conduct. As one of the interviewed entrepreneurs admitted, ‘when you become famous in the community, you have to be careful of what you say or do as all eyes are on you. If it happens that you have done something which conflicts with the image of a good citizen, the whole community will start judging you and your family, which is not what I really aspire. Therefore, I prefer to stay in the shadows and choose to come out of it only if the business requires it’.

Unwillingness to interfere in other people’s affairs shapes the negative attitude of Omani employees to open-plan offices that are praised and encouraged in modern Omani start-ups and SMEs. For the interviewed entrepreneurs, they are perceived as jeopardizing staff’s privacy and forcing Omani employees to experience ‘Khajal’, the cultural concept that means ‘a constraint caused by the fear of doing something improper’ (Eickelman, 1984). Having been internalized in childhood, this fear continues to invisibly but forcefully inform the social conduct of Omani employees. Moreover, some participants reported that open-plan offices violate the traditional and expected segregation of the sexes. These two factors contribute to the slow adoption rate of open-plan offices in start-ups striving for innovation and equating innovative success with Western business-run ways.

Theme 4: Orientation toward the ascribed status

The indigenous culture of Oman is intertwined with the social hierarchy that is expected to be observed under all circumstances. As the interviewees have reported it in this context, entrepreneurship is perceived as an escape route out of the necessity to be accountable to anyone, especially to a manager with a lower social status but higher professional rank. The typical response to the researchers’ question regarding the reasons for choosing an entrepreneur’s career would be ‘I want to be my own boss’ or ‘I want the freedom to make my own decisions, choosing my own team and my own projects’. The status of an entrepreneur removes the need to adjust to the social hierarchy’s expectations. As a reverse effect, the choice to choose an entrepreneur’s career over employment in a company might be triggered by the wrong motives, which will lead to failure in the future.

Theme 5: Orientation toward the elders and ancestral heritage

Respect for ancestral heritage and traditions has been a hallmark of Omani communities. Modernity has not diminished the value attached to the elders and their impact on the community’s decision-making process. In rural areas, all the important decisions are taken by Sabla (a space for social gathering) gathering, while at the family level, the parents would make the final decision whilst considering the opinion of the wider community. The interviewed entrepreneurs mentioned their community and their parents as playing a crucial role in either choosing or rejecting an entrepreneur’s career. If the community elders are in favor of embracing a culture of entrepreneurship, normally, the parents would have a similar positive attitude to entrepreneurial intentions and the activities of their children. If, however, there is community and family resistance towards entrepreneurship, an aspiring entrepreneur would require extra effort and resilience to become one.

In order to avoid generalization, we would like to clarify that attitudes towards entrepreneurship in Oman are regionally biased. The regions located in close proximity to the United Arab Emirates (e.g., Al Buraimi) or port cities (e.g., Sohar) seem to demonstrate less conservative and more entrepreneurial-culture embracing behavior due to their exposure to other cultures and to their continuous maintenance of traditional business contacts with the external world. Below is an excerpt from an interview with an entrepreneur from Buraimi who describes his hometown as a representation of a hybrid culture:

In the past, only two-three families lived in Buraimi, but now it has become multicultural due to national/internal migration. This migration has changed the local lifestyle. The modern Buraimi does not stick to the old culture. The newcomers brought a new culture and made the community more open. Buraimi is a small city where people know each other like in the old days, but the traditions do not control everything. In Buraimi, a hybrid culture allows past and present to co-exist.

However, the majority of the regions in Oman share traditional cultural dispositions towards entrepreneurship and widely support our findings.

EO dimensions, Omani community concerns, the corresponding cultural orientations, and EO dimensions strengthened by Omani cultural orientations

We have observed that within the current configuration of EO dimensions and Omani cultural orientations, EO dimensions lack the support of the Omani cultural orientations due to several concerns with which the Omani community associates them. Table 3 below demonstrates how the concerns and anxieties of the Omani population are not allowing EO dimensions to be integrated into the mindset of the local population in their pure form. Moreover, we have identified three dimensions that are being affected the most by the lack of the required alignment - risk-taking, autonomy, and competitive aggressiveness - compared to the other two (innovativeness and proactiveness).

Since it appears that the local community perceives the EO dimensions as potentially challenging the Omani cultural expectations and dispositions, we are proposing to strengthen EO dimensions with Omani cultural orientations (see Table 3 below). This will hopefully neutralize the concerns associated with entrepreneurial activities that are performed in line with the EO dimensions and, consequently, might lead to a change of attitude and assimilation of EO dimensions into the mentality and practice of the local community.

Omani culture appears to need a gradual initiation process into novel and innovative ideas and projects when start-ups and SMEs have to consider the opinion of the local population and consistently work to gain their acceptance of the proposed initiatives. Innovations that can show a direct benefit to the community normally receive the approval of the local population. Additionally, Omanis have to visualize an idea or a product before they invest in it. As one of the interviewed entrepreneurs in the 3D printing business explained,

Omanis do not buy creativity or innovation; they buy creation. They have very little trust in what they cannot see. Knowing that, we always bring some visuals or demos with us or create a small model for them, helping them visualize our idea every time it works.

Proactiveness in Omani culture would be easier to cultivate within teams rather than at the individual level. If an initiative comes from a group of people, the team will share both failure and success. One of the entrepreneurs offered his observations on proactiveness with shared responsibility.

People in Oman do not appreciate being put in the spotlight. They would always use pronoun ‘we’ not ‘I’ when they report the results of their projects to the management, whether positive or negative, which should be the culture and practice encouraged in other companies.

‘Safe’ risk-taking allows entrepreneurs to fail safely to preserve their dignity, good reputation, and the community’s trust. This could also help them keep their customer and investor network active. One of the interviewees explained.

If failure were not perceived as the end of the world and had no association with shame, it would help many entrepreneurs stay in business and explore other avenues rather than completely bury their intention of being an entrepreneur and having a successful business one day.

The decision to work autonomously should be taken depending on what is at stake, who is in the team, and what stage of the project the team is at. Upholding autonomy as a pure value regardless of the context might not be recommended in such a highly collectivistic and community-dependent social environment as observed in Oman. Autonomy is appreciated at the idea incubation stage when the management commands it or when there is looming deadline pressure. Under the circumstances of idea generation or decision-making, autonomy rarely needs to be observed. Hence, there should be a time and place autonomy to be deployed.

Competition can be integrated into Omani mentality if applied at the industry level, not companies operating within the same industry. Open competition does not have a positive connotation in the Omani community despite the overt competition taking place. Therefore, as acknowledged by one of the interviewees,

companies prefer to challenge other industries rather than the businesses within their own industry in order to preserve amicable relationships, on the one hand, and to help their industry to grow and be competitive, on the other hand.

Discussion

The obtained results might offer an extra lens for the analysis of the potential reasons behind the insufficiently effective deployment of Western-born EO dimensions pursuing the purpose of boosting entrepreneurial activities in the country. The demonstrated merge of the EO dimensions and Omani cultural orientations can potentially align the EO orientations with the local socio-cultural context and expectations. In line with Dauletova and Al-Busaidi (2022), we continue to perceive socio-cultural factors as drivers of entrepreneurship development. By doing so, we are transforming somewhat unrealistic and ethereal hopes into a concrete action plan for future change in attitudes and mindset. We are also stressing the importance of studying, showing respect, and investing in sustaining indigenous cultural and religious mindsets.

In this regard, we are offering a set of mechanisms that would facilitate the process of assimilation of the EO orientations into the Omani mentality and could potentially benefit other cultures where government efforts are meeting resistance from the local population. As per our observation, we see the role of the state (the government and its authorities) as leading our plan striving to align government efforts with the Omani population’s expectations and actions related to entrepreneurship.

Firstly, local entrepreneurs should be empowered by being granted a wider range of rights, authority, and permits when it comes to accessing resources and facilities that are plentiful in the country but limited in access due to bureaucratic or legal restrictions. This would increase innovativeness and proactiveness by unlocking the entrepreneurs’ willingness to experiment with promising new ideas and their readiness to seize new opportunities. The government’s official support would send an affirmative message to the community, indirectly communicating the state’s approval and its trust in the capabilities of current and aspiring entrepreneurs. This would preserve the requirement for stability and essential community relationships. Additionally, institutes of elders would have leverage for supporting the entrepreneurial efforts of the members of their tribe, seeing that government initiatives are progressing in line with their peoples’ interests.

In order to eliminate anxiety towards risk-taking, the government should offer programs that: give entrepreneurs continuous support and guidance, allow entrepreneurs to fail safely and be absorbed by or integrated into other business ventures; and consult the entrepreneurs on further steps if they are willing to continue their journey in business.

In the wake of the entrepreneurship campaign to increase employment opportunities for Omanis, the government started targeting mostly young Omani adults. However, as the research shows (Kropp et al, 2008) and Omani culture celebrating the elders (hakim) confirms, the older an entrepreneur is, the higher is the probability for him/her to start a business venture. Most of the entrepreneurship training programs at the national level are offered to applicants in 18–30 age range. As a result, on average, Omanis who go into early retirement at the age of 45–50 have no options for them to be trained as entrepreneurs. By offering more training and other entrepreneurship support initiatives to the mature Omani population would also build a strong foundation for the institute of mentorship so much sought after by young entrepreneurs. As one of the interviewees stated,

it is a mistake to treat entrepreneurship as a remedy for unemployment. Entrepreneurship has much more value than sees the eye and should be developed and supported for its own sake.

The institute of mentorship should be able to provide continuity, give meaning to the concept of entrepreneurship, and promote the concept of entrepreneurship with its embeddedness in the local community’s mentality and mindset.

Secondly, in addition to government efforts, entrepreneurs are also expected to consider their employees’ cultural orientations. If they create an environment that addresses the concerns of their employees and accommodates their culturally-defined behaviors, that would assist them with the application of such entrepreneurial dimensions as proactiveness, risk-taking and competitive advantage. For example, the tourist operators that bring tourists to villages should engage the local population in their business, offer them training opportunities and create a customer base for them. This way, the locals would feel more motivated to collaborate with the operators rather than oppose them.

We would also advise against some of the practices that are associated with the concept of ‘innovativeness’. For example, open-plan offices promoted by some start-ups to enhance the cross-pollination of ideas and communication among their employees should not be imposed on the employees if, in doing so, some essential cultural values are violated. The findings of this study showed that entrepreneurial spirit among Omani business owners is not necessarily driven by Western values, Western entrepreneurship dimensions, the arrangement of furniture or open-plan office concept but by cultural values and orientations. The previous research also supports this finding. For example, Dauletova and Al-Busaidi (2022) found that a place in the interior side of Oman called Nizwa presents itself as the central hub of Omani rural entrepreneurs. The authors found these local entrepreneurs to be very successful not because of the influence of Western entrepreneurship values but due to socio-cultural factors (Dauletova & Al-Busaidi, 2022).

The orientation towards privacy based on the local population’s cautious attitude to public attention can be respected by a ‘dispersing the focus’ strategy suggested by one of the interviewees. This community service strategy encompasses the inclusion of the wider community in one’s business through offering training opportunities for the lay community and establishing communication platforms for other entrepreneurs.

Overall, echoing Mrabure et al. (2021), Colbourne (2021), Lindsay (2005), and Peredo and Chrisman (2006), we perceive traditional culture as a crucial component of entrepreneurial culture which, when applied to the EO dimensions can assist and move entrepreneurship development in Oman forward.

Conclusion

Traditional values of religious and socio-cultural origin continue to play a fundamental role in shaping the attitude of the contemporary Omani community towards entrepreneurship. Consequently, it should be a priority for all the agents in the entrepreneurship ecosystem in Oman and other indigenous culture-oriented countries.

As an alternative scenario for assisting the entrepreneurship development in countries with a strong traditional culture and heritage we propose the implementation of the hybrid form of entrepreneurship where the local culture orientations strengthen the EO dimensions. Oman offers a valuable study demonstrating how modern and traditional businesses can be integrated into a modern state. With the current study, we have attempted to respond to the call by Chew et al. (2022) to interpret the individualized perceptions of entrepreneurs to elucidate how cultural values impact EO. However, more research is needed on how organizational culture is affected in those businesses which try to combine EO dimensions with traditional cultural orientations.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

Data available on request due to privacy/ethical restrictions

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Victoria Dauletova

Victoria Dauletova, Ph.D. is an associate professor in the Department of Business Communication, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman. Her main areas of expertise are social identity, entrepreneurial behaviour, gender communication, and computer-mediated communication. She has published articles on innovative approaches to business education as well as institutional discourse communication practices. College of Economics and Political Science, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 50 Al-Khoud 123, Oman. Email: [email protected]

Adil S. Al-Busaidi

Adil S. Al-Busaidi, Ph.D. is a director of Innovation and Technology Transfer Center and an assistant professor in the Department of Business Communication, Sultan Qaboos University. He received his Ph.D. from Ohio University. He currently leads the Research & Innovation division at the Smart City Platform in Oman. His research interests span both organizational communication and research methods. His current research projects focus on organizational silence and organizational dissent. College of Economics and Political Science, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 20 Al-Khoud 123, Oman. Email: [email protected]

Ibtisam Al-Wahaibi

Ibtisam Al-Wahaibi, Ph.D. an assistant professor of communication at Sultan Qaboos University. Her current research focuses on analyzing communicative events using discourse analysis and discursive psychology approach. She has conducted a thorough research on Communication in institutionalized settings in Oman: gender, discourse and the politics of interaction. Email: [email protected]

Salim O. Al-Khaldi

Salim O. Al-Khaldi, MSc is an adjunct lecturer and assistant researcher in the College of Economics and Political Science, Sultan Qaboos University. His research is in the field of Human Resources Development, Entrepreneurial Behavior, Culture of Creativity and Innovation, and Innovative Work Behavior. Email: [email protected]