The effects of purchase and consumption on beef quality attribute beliefs: a study of tourists visiting Vanuatu

Abstract

Tourists’ gastronomic experiences are integral to their overall travel satisfaction. Understanding the factors influencing tourists’ perceptions of local cuisine quality is crucial. This study explores the development of quality attribute beliefs among tourists unfamiliar with Vanuatu beef. It focuses on credence and experience quality attributes and their evolution through the purchasing and consumption of Vanuatu beef, considering the influence of personal factors on attribute beliefs. Data from 200 tourists in Vanuatu was analysed using factor analysis, means comparison, and multiple linear regression. The results highlight the influence of tourists’ pre-existing beliefs on credence quality attributes, impacting their post-purchase and consumption beliefs. Additionally, personal factors, especially the importance of credence attributes, significantly affect pre- and post-purchase beliefs about experience quality attributes. However, the importance of experience attributes only affects post-purchase beliefs regarding credence attributes. This research provides valuable insights into the formation of tourists’ beliefs about the quality attributes of local cuisine. The findings are particularly significant as tourists’ gastronomic experiences are closely tied to their overall travel satisfaction. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for enhancing tourists’ experiences in Vanuatu and similar destinations.

Keywords:

• Credence attributes
• experience attributes
• Vanuatu
• beef
• quality attributes
• tourist satisfaction

Reviewing Editor:

• Azza Tmessek, Université de Carthage IHEC Carthage, Universite de Carthage Institut des Hautes Etudes Commerciales de Carthage, Tunisia

Subjects:

• Agriculture and Food
• Consumer Behaviour

1. Introduction

Tourist’s satisfaction with their travel experience is increasingly recognised as linked to their gastronomic experiences (Choe & Kim, 2018; Kim et al., 2021; Kovalenko et al., 2023). Furthermore, this has been identified as a topic that requires more research. For example, Choe and Kim (2018) and Kim et al. (2021) emphasise that understanding the complex factors that affect tourists’ beliefs about quality aspects of local cuisine is relatively unexplored. Hence, research on how tourists form beliefs regarding the quality attributes of local cuisine contributes to the understanding of tourists’ food preferences. This can also provide policymakers and managers in the tourism industry with valuable knowledge to improve the satisfaction of visitors with their travel experience.

Research in this area is particularly relevant for developing countries where tourism serves as a key driver of economic growth, which is the case for many Pacific Island nations (Khan et al., 2020). Improving the satisfaction of visitors with their gastronomic experiences can have significant implications for the success of the tourism industry in these countries. With this in mind, this study investigates beliefs regarding beef quality attributes of tourists visiting Vanuatu.

Vanuatu is a chain of islands in the South Pacific with 13 principal and 70 minor islands. Tourism is the major economic sector in Vanuatu, generating approximately 48% of GDP (Hyde, 2021). Agriculture is also an important economic activity with around 40% of its 1.2 million hectares being good agricultural land. Unlike most Pacific countries, Vanuatu has a thriving cattle industry. Vanuatu’s beef industry benefits from being free from the more harmful cattle diseases such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), rinderpest, foot and mouth disease and bovine tuberculosis. As a result of this Vanuatu has a significant beef export industry and is self-sufficient in beef. The main export markets are New Caledonia, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, and Japan (Lees & Greenhalgh, 2018). Aside from exports, local demand for beef comes from residents as well as tourists visiting Vanuatu. The majority of tourists visiting Vanuatu are from Australia and New Zealand. Demand from tourists comes from two sources – those who arrive by air and stay an average of about eight days, plus those who disembark from cruise ships for only one day. Cruise ship visitors have little impact on the demand for beef, due to their short time in the country and the availability of food on the ship. Consequently, the research specifically focused on the characteristics of tourists who arrive by air.

1.1. Research context

This research addresses a particular gap in knowledge regarding tourists’ beliefs regarding food quality attributes and builds upon the previous work of Choe and Kim (2018) and Tran et al. (2018).

The study centres on Vanuatu beef due to its significance in Vanuatu’s local cuisine and its role in cultural tourism (Aregheore et al., 2006; Garcia Gonzalez, 2013; Jin, 2020; Quigley et al., 2021). Specifically, it investigates how tourists’ beliefs about the quality attributes of Vanuatu beef change from before to after purchase and consumption. This is particularly relevant because many first-time visitors to Vanuatu are not aware of its significant beef industry (Table 1) and hence the quality of its local beef (Cassidy & Brown, 2010). As a result, they have not yet formed specific beliefs about the quality of Vanuatu beef. While previous studies have explored how the introduction of new information can impact consumer perceptions of a novel brand of beef (Tran et al., 2018), this study aims to fill a specific research gap by examining changes in tourists’ beliefs about beef by gaining new information and their gastronomic experience while visiting a tourist destination - in this case, Vanuatu.

Table 1. Beef perception and consumption characteristics.

Variable	Description	% of respondents
Meat consumption	Vegetarian	10%
	Rarely eat meat (1–2 × per month)	2%
	Occasional meat eater (once a week)	7%
	Heavy meat eater (every day)	14%
	Moderate meat-eater (2–6 × per week)	67%
	I love the taste of beef	83%
Attitude to beef (% strongly and somewhat agree)	I eat beef whenever I can	32%
	I choose beef at a restaurant if it’s on the menu	24%
	I am reducing my meat consumption for health reasons	28%
	I am reducing my meat consumption for environmental reasons	20%
	I am reducing my consumption for animal welfare reasons	14%
	I love the taste of beef	83%
Awareness of Vanuatu beef prior to visiting (First visit)	Definitely yes	10%
	Maybe yes	7%
	Not sure	11%
	Definitely not	72%
Have eaten Vanuatu beef (at the time of the survey)	Yes	90%
	No	10%
Associate with Vanuatu cuisine (% definitely yes)	Fish and seafood	55%
	Beef	27%
	Chicken	12%
	Pork	9%
	Veal	1%

Many studies examining beliefs about beef quality attributes typically involve consumers who have previously consumed similar products, resulting in significant prior knowledge. This is evident from the numerous studies comparing domestic beef to imported products, these require participants to have prior consumption experience with the products under study (Aboah & Lees, 2020; Henchion et al., 2017). The necessity for this research was highlighted by Banović et al. (2009, p. 335), who noted that ‘studies that explore beef quality perception as a whole, both before and after consumption, are relatively rare.’

Additionally, most research focuses on consumers’ beliefs regarding quality attributes for products consumed within their home country (Cubero Dudinskaya et al., 2021; Wongprawmas et al., 2018), highlighting a preference for domestically produced beef among most consumers (Aboah & Lees, 2020; Ekelund et al., 2007; Henchion et al., 2017). This study acknowledges the necessity for a deeper understanding of consumers’ beliefs regarding beef quality, particularly in the context of tourists’ consumption at their travel destination.

In this current study, consumption takes place in a restaurant setting, which standardises some variations in food preparation, quality, and the eating environment (Sweeney et al., 2016). Moreover, consumers are unable to visually assess the product prior to purchase and must rely on other quality cues, such as the restaurant environment, price, and menu description (McCall & Lynn, 2008; Yang et al., 2009). Hence, the context of this research differs from the many studies that focus on consumers purchasing from retail rather than the food service environment (Egan et al., 2001; Mielby & Frøst, 2010; Miller & Ginter, 1979). By exploring the complex factors that shape tourists’ beliefs about the quality attributes of local cuisine, this study contributes to the existing literature on how tourists perceive the quality aspects of beef through their gastronomic experiences. Additionally, this study can assist tourism industry stakeholders in developing more effective strategies for promoting local cuisine and enhancing the overall tourist experience.

1.2. Research objectives

• To explore how tourists visiting Vanuatu without prior knowledge of local beef form beliefs about the quality attributes of this product and how these beliefs are influenced by the process of purchasing and consuming the product.

• To examine the significance that tourists place on both credence and experience quality attributes, and how this influences their perceptions of these attributes, both before and after the purchase and consumption of local beef in Vanuatu.

2. Literature review

2.1. Quality attributes

How consumers develop beliefs about beef quality is a complex and dynamic process that involves three main quality aspects - search, experience, and credence attributes (Bernués et al., 2003; Darby & Karni, 1973; Yang et al., 2020). Search characteristics are attributes that can be evaluated by the consumer before purchase, while experience characteristics are only able to be determined after purchase and consumption (Liu et al., 2022). In contrast to the first two, credence characteristics cannot be verified even after the purchase or consumption of the product, therefore, they are difficult or costly to validate (Kovacs & Keresztes, 2022). Another approach classifies quality attributes into intrinsic and extrinsic product characteristics (Acebrón & Dopico, 2000; Bukhari et al., 2020; Hocquette et al., 2012; Henchion et al., 2017; Olson, 1972; Salnikova & Grunert, 2020; Szybillo & Jacoby, 1974). Intrinsic characteristics are part of the product itself and cannot be changed without also altering the physical characteristics of the product. In contrast, extrinsic characteristics are not physically part of the product. These include factors such as packaging, price, place of purchase and advertising (Acebrón & Dopico, 2000; Steenkamp, 1989). Furthermore, Steenkamp (1990) distinguishes between quality cues and quality attributes. Quality cues are similar to search criteria which are evaluated through the senses prior to consumption. Quality cues are the information the consumer uses to predict the quality of the product (Banović et al., 2009). Quality attributes, on the other hand, relate to what the product achieves for the consumer in terms of functional and psychosocial benefits (Scalco et al., 2020; Steenkamp, 1990).

2.2. Quality evaluation

The process by which consumers evaluate quality involves complex interactions between a specific product (object) and the subjective psychological and physiological processes of an individual (Anderson & Barrett, 2016; Font-I-Furnols & Guerrero, 2014; Plassmann et al., 2008). This process relates to an approach termed the ‘perceived quality perspective’, which emphasises that quality is dependent on the perceptions, needs and goals of consumers (Grunert, 2005; Henchion et al., 2014). In this approach, consumers create their perception of quality from an evaluation of multiple and, often, interrelated product attributes. Therefore, understanding what influences consumers’ beliefs regarding these attributes and how these beliefs can change is important for understanding consumer behaviour, especially in the context of the purchase and consumption of beef products.

Focusing specifically on the quality perceptions of beef, Grunert (1997) identified the most important experience quality aspects of beef as that it tastes good, is tender, juicy, fresh and lean. These characteristics focus primarily on flavour and texture (Cardona et al., 2023; Henchion et al., 2017). Credence attributes are categorised as being healthy and nutritious. As consumers cannot evaluate the health and nutritional status even after consumption, they use proxy cues based on their knowledge of the production system, such as organic or natural production methods (Saeed & Grunert, 2014). This use of proxy cues is consistent with research that shows that organic alternatives are purchased mainly for perceived health reasons (Napolitano et al., 2010).

2.3. Prior knowledge

According to Tran et al. (2018), prior knowledge is an important factor that affects how consumers process information and form quality-related beliefs. Research has shown that consumers’ prior knowledge of a destination’s cuisine can significantly impact their perception of the quality of local food playing a critical role in their decision-making process (Jin & Han, 2014; Kim et al., 2021; Kovalenko et al., 2023). Consumers who possess prior knowledge of a product are likely to develop a greater number of quality attribute beliefs and form quality judgments faster than those with limited pre-existing knowledge (Steenkamp, 1990).

Moreover, prior knowledge can influence the relationship between quality expectations and quality experience, which, in turn, affects product satisfaction. In other words, consumers’ pre-existing beliefs and knowledge about a product can shape their expectations of its quality and influence how satisfied they are with the product once they have experienced it. This highlights the importance of understanding consumers’ prior knowledge and beliefs when studying their perceptions of product quality (Font-I-Furnols & Guerrero, 2014; Grunert et al., 2004; Saeed & Grunert, 2014; Tran et al., 2018).

For example, Deliza and MacFie (1996), Font-I-Furnols and Guerrero (2014) and Liu et al. (2022) have identified that both confirmation and disconfirmation of expectations can lead to consumer satisfaction. They suggest that the disconfirmation of expectations can lead to satisfaction, particularly when consumers experience positive disconfirmation. Positive disconfirmation occurs when consumers initially hold negative or neutral expectations of a product’s quality but have a positive experience that exceeds these expectations. On the other hand, negative confirmation occurs when a product does not meet existing positive expectations while meeting expectations creates a neutral feeling (Liu et al., 2022). Therefore, consumers with limited prior knowledge may experience greater satisfaction as they may have lower quality expectations, leading to a greater likelihood of positive disconfirmation (Saeed & Grunert, 2014). This highlights the importance of prior knowledge and its effect on quality expectations.

2.4. Personal factors

(Steenkamp, 1990) identified a number of personal factors affecting the quality perception process. These were prior knowledge about the product, level of education, perceived quality, risk and quality consciousness. Bernués et al. (2003) categorised consumers’ personal factors as values/concerns, lifestyle, usage goals and sociodemographic factors.

This research model incorporates the variable ‘importance’ of experience and credence attributes as a personal factor influencing the quality perception process. This relates to the ‘quality consciousness’ identified by Steenkamp (1990) and the ‘values and concerns’ discussed by Bernués et al. (2003).

Several research studies have explored other personal factors including variables such as personality, using frameworks like the big five model of personality (Palnau et al., 2022) and the theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991; Gutierrez et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2024) and Hofstede’s cultural framework (Yu et al., 2024). However, these models have primarily been employed to predict consumer purchase behaviour rather than the quality perception process. Nevertheless, it has been noted that individuals with differing personalities may show variations in how they construct beliefs, attitudes, and their propensity to adopt social norms (Ajzen, 1991; Jamaludin et al., 2020). Personality variables have been utilised to forecast consumer purchase behaviour in various food-related studies. For instance, researchers have examined the correlation between consumers’ choice of organic products (Gustavsen & Hegnes, 2020), non-GMO products (Ardebili & Rickertsen, 2020), engagement in green consumption (Duong, 2022), attitudes towards food waste (Jamaludin et al., 2020) and meat consumption patterns (Palnau et al., 2022).

2.5. Theoretical models

Bernués et al. (2003) and Grunert (2005) identify a number of different theoretical models to explain consumer food quality perceptions. These are the means-end approach, the expectancy-value approach, the economics of information approach, and the satisfaction/dissatisfaction approach. Steenkamp (1990) developed the first model to explain the development of consumers’ perception of quality (Figure 1). This was further developed by Grunert (2005) into the total food quality model which explains the importance of consumers’ quality expectations before purchase and their quality experience after purchase.

Figure 1. Model of the quality perception process (Steenkamp, 1990).

The conceptual model (Figure 2) used in this study is developed from the model of the quality perception process and the total food quality model, which considers both the pre-and post-purchase phases of food consumption (Brunsø et al., 2002). This allows for an examination of tourists’ quality attribute beliefs both prior to and following their purchase and consumption of Vanuatu beef. This model also distinguishes between consumers’ beliefs regarding intrinsic and extrinsic quality cues, and credence and experience quality attribute beliefs. It identifies that consumers form their perception of product quality from their beliefs about credence and experience attributes and that these are affected by personal and situational factors as well as beliefs about intrinsic and extrinsic quality cues.

Figure 2. Conceptual model.

2.6. Research model

This study developed a conceptual model (Figure 2) based on the frameworks of Grunert (2005) and Steenkamp (1990). This model proposes that consumers with no prior knowledge of Vanuatu beef will have different quality attribute beliefs before and after product purchase and consumption.

The conceptual model is further developed into the research model (Figure 3) that identifies the main hypotheses of the study. According to this model, the beliefs of tourists regarding the credence and experience quality of local cuisine before purchase and consumption will have an impact on these beliefs after purchase and consumption (Grunert, 2005). The model also suggests that personal factors, such as the importance of these quality attributes to the consumers, will affect their quality attribute beliefs before and after purchase and consumption (Bernués et al., 2003; Steenkamp, 1990). Figure 3 illustrates this research model.

Figure 3. Research Model: The development of product quality beliefs.

3. Hypotheses

3.1. Conceptual hypotheses

Steenkamp (1990, p.314) states that quality attributes are ‘categorised as experience or credence attributes’. This categorisation is also supported by Grunert (2005). Consequently, H1a and H1b propose that tourists will perceive these attributes as distinct psychological constructs, and this perception will remain consistent both before and after consumption. Both Steenkamp (1990) and Grunert (2005) identify the significance of personal factors on credence and experience attributes, in shaping the formation of beliefs regarding quality perception. Therefore, H1c proposes that these personal factors will be recognised as distinct psychological constructs for tourists visiting Vanuatu.

• H1a: Tourists perceive credence and experience quality attributes as distinct constructs before purchase and consumption.

• H1b: Tourists perceive credence and experience quality attributes as distinct constructs following purchase and consumption.

• H1c: Tourists perceive the level of ‘importance’ of credence and experience quality attributes as distinct constructs.

3.2. Personal factor hypotheses

Steenkamp (1990) states that the importance of perceived quality attributes are positively related to the extent of belief formation in the process of quality perception. Hence, H2a and H2b propose a positive relationship between the importance tourists place on credence and experience attributes and their beliefs regarding these attributes both before and after purchase and consumption.

• H2a: There is a positive relationship between the level of importance tourists place on credence and experience attributes and their beliefs regarding these attributes before purchase and consumption.

• H2b: There is a positive relationship between the level of importance tourists place on credence and experience attributes and their beliefs regarding these attributes after purchase and consumption.

3.3. Quality beliefs hypotheses

Grunert (2005) identifies the role of prior beliefs in influencing the process of quality formation, indicating that these beliefs also influence the quality attribute beliefs formed after the consumption experience. Therefore, H3a, H3b, H3c, and H3d all propose a positive relationship between tourists’ quality attribute beliefs before the purchase and consumption process and those formed after purchase and consumption.

• H3a: There is a positive relationship between tourists’ beliefs regarding credence quality attributes before purchase and consumption and their beliefs regarding credence attribute beliefs after purchase and consumption.

• H3b: There is a positive relationship between tourists’ beliefs regarding experience quality attributes before product purchase and consumption and their beliefs regarding experience quality attributes after purchase and consumption.

• H3c: There is a positive relationship between tourists’ beliefs regarding experience quality attributes before product purchase and consumption and their beliefs regarding credence quality attributes after purchase and consumption.

• H3d: There is a positive relationship between tourists’ beliefs regarding credence quality attributes before product purchase and their beliefs regarding experience quality attributes after purchase and consumption.

4. Methods

4.1. Survey development

The variables used in the survey were drawn from previous studies (Aboah & Lees, 2020; Grunert, 1997; Yang & Renwick, 2019) and adapted to relate to the context of Vanuatu beef. Grunert (1997) identifies four significant experience quality attributes, these are tenderness, juiciness, freshness, and leanness. Similarly, in their literature review on credence quality attributes of beef, Aboah and Lees (2020) highlighted the production system as one of the most important credence quality attributes.

Hence, the credence quality attributes selected included: naturally raised; no antibiotics and organic. Experience quality attributes included tenderness, great taste, and high quality. The measurement scales were developed for these constructs and their validity was tested through principal component analysis. Participants were asked to recall their beliefs about these attributes of Vanuatu beef before their visit and then what these beliefs were now following consumption.

While the survey relies on tourists’ recollections, this methodology is widely employed in food and dietary research (Belli, 1998; Löwik, 1996). Although it has some limitations in terms of recall accuracy, it has been deemed sufficiently valid for collecting past food intake data. Moreover, Lynch et al. (1991) argue that when attributes hold great importance for consumers, the accuracy of their recall tends to be high. Furthermore, Hair et al. (2010) highlight that the data requirements for principal component analysis and regression analysis differ from those of descriptive analysis, as they aim to define relationships rather than precisely estimate descriptive statistics for a specific population. Thus, despite its limitations, this method was deemed appropriate and sufficiently accurate for this research.

Experience and credence attribute beliefs were measured on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 = definitely false to 5 = definitely true. The level of importance tourists ascribed to the quality attributes was also measured on a 5-5-point Likert scale from 1= not important at all to 5 = extremely important.

4.2. Data collection

The research design employed a quantitative approach to gathering data on tourists’ quality attribute beliefs. The target population consisted of tourists visiting Vanuatu. The sampling frame was defined as tourists who had stayed in Vanuatu for more than 2 days, had arrived by air and had consumed Vanuatu beef during their stay. Tourists arriving on cruise ships were excluded from the sample due to their limited one-day visits and onboard meals (Cassidy & Brown, 2010).

A convenience sampling method was utilised to collect the data. To ensure consistency, a predefined protocol was employed while conducting the survey. The data collection occurred in October 2018, with two primary sources: Tourists in Port Vila, the capital city of Vanuatu, and a boosted Facebook sample.

For the Facebook sample, individuals were targeted with profiles indicating interests in ‘tourism,’ ‘Vanuatu,’ and ‘holidays.’ These individuals were invited to participate in the survey by providing a brief description of the project and clicking on a provided link. In Port Vila, tourists were individually approached and provided with a concise project description. They were then asked if they would be willing to provide their email address to receive a survey link. Respondents accessing the survey through Facebook were also given a link to the survey.

4.3. Data analysis

The data was imported and analysed using IBM SPSS Statistical software (Version 27). This allowed for the preparation of the data, including identifying cases with significant missing values. A descriptive analysis was performed to evaluate the important characteristics of the sample (Table 2). The variables examined included gender, age, education, home country, length of stay, meat consumption, awareness of Vanuatu beef prior to the visit, and consumption during the visit (Table 1). The variables were compared with the Vanuatu International Visitor Survey (Auckland Institute of Technology, 2018) using an independent t-test. This comparison assessed whether the sample was representative of tourists visiting Vanuatu. Statistical significance was examined to determine if there were any notable differences. Based on this analysis, it was determined that the data provided an acceptable representation of tourists visiting Vanuatu.

Table 2. Sample characteristics.

Variable	Description	% of respondents
	Male	46%
	Female	54%
Age (years)	19–29	10%
	30–39	15%
	40–49	25%
	50–59	26%
	60–69	17%
	70–79	4%
	80–89	1%
Education	High school	20%
	Some college	17%
	Bachelor’s degree	35%
	Postgraduate degree	25%
	Other	3%
Income ($AUS)	Less than $40,000	18%
	$40,000–$59,000	13%
	$60,000–$79,000	24%
	$80,000–$89,000	6%
	$90,000–$99,000	9%
	>$100,000	30%
Home country	Australia	66%
	New Zealand	19%
	New Caledonia	1%
	Europe	9%
	North America	3%
	Other	3%
Length of stay	2–6 days	15%
	1–2 weeks	46%
	3–4 weeks	8%
	5 weeks to 6 months	23%
	More than 6 months	8%
Accommodation	Hotel	16%
	Resort	58%
	Backpackers	2%
	Private home/apartment	12%
	Airbnb	1%
	Other	11%
Number of visits	First time	58%
	2–3 times	25%
	> 3 times	17%

Factor analysis was used to validate measures relating to credence and experience quality attributes and to provide composite scores for use in the regression analysis. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy and Bartlett’s test of sphericity were used to assess the suitability of the data for conducting factor analysis. Cross-loading factors and those with a factor loading of less than five were removed from the analysis (Hair et al., 2010). Principal component analysis was used for factor extraction using Varimax rotation with Kaiser Normalisation. The number of factors to retain was based on eigenvalues, scree plot and the percentage of variance explained. The internal consistency or reliability of each factor was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha using 0.7 as an acceptable value (Hair et al., 2010).

A comparison of means using an independent t-test identified significant differences in tourists’ awareness (Table 3), the importance (Figure 4), and the strength of their quality beliefs (Figure 5) regarding credence and experience attributes before and after visiting and consuming Vanuatu beef.

Figure 4. Comparison of the importance of attributes of beef for tourists when travelling overseas.

Figure 5. Change in the strength of credence and experience attribute beliefs before and after purchase and consumption.

Table 3. Changes in tourists’ beliefs regarding the quality attributes of Vanuatu beef before and after visiting.

Attributes	Awareness before and after visit
	Before	Now	Change	% Change	Significance
Great taste	3.5	4.2	0.7	20%	0.001
Tender	3.4	4.1	0.7	22%	0.001
High quality	3.3	4.1	0.8	24%	0.001
Naturally raised	3.9	4.2	0.4	9%	0.002
Organic	3.8	4.2	0.4	12%	0.001
Produced without antibiotics	3.6	4.0	0.4	11%	0.008

Finally, multiple linear regression was calculated to predict tourists’ beliefs regarding credence and experience attributes before and after purchase and consumption. Multiple linear regression was chosen due to its simplicity and ability to evaluate the direct effects of the independent variables on the specified dependent variables (Musil et al., 1998).

Analysis of a scatterplot of residuals plotted against the predicted values was used to evaluate homoscedasticity. Multicollinearity in the data was assessed by examining variable correlations. Cook’s distance and standard residuals were utilised to identify potential outliers and evaluate the impact of individual observations on the regression model. Finally, to confirm the assumption of linearity, and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed to detect any significant deviations from the assumption of a linear relationship.

The analysis incorporated the independent and dependent variables based on the research model (Figure 3). The goodness of fit of the regression model was evaluated using the adjusted R-squared statistic. To determine the most significant predictors in the regression model, stepwise regression was employed. This approach involved the addition or exclusion of variables based on their p-values, with a significance level of 0.05 used as the threshold. By progressively adding or removing variables, the model aimed to identify the subset of predictors that had the strongest association with the dependent variables. To assess the strength and significance of the relationships between the dependent and independent variables, standardised values were calculated. These standardised coefficients enabled the comparison of the relative importance of each independent variable in influencing the dependent variables. The significance of these relationships was evaluated using the p-values, with significance levels of 0.05, 0.01, and 0.001 used to indicate different levels of statistical significance.

4.4. Survey response

A total of 336 emails were sent to tourists who had supplied their email address. This resulted in 150 responses giving a 45% response rate. This high response rate is likely because by providing their email address, they had already shown some willingness to complete the survey. There were a further 50 surveys completed over a website link posted on various targeted Facebook sites.

Of the respondents, 66% were from Australia, 19% were from New Zealand and 12% were from Europe or the United States of America. This result was similar to the results of the Vanuatu International Visitor Survey, which had 57% from Australia, 19% from New Zealand and 13% ‘long haul.’ The main difference was that the VIVS survey had higher numbers of New Caledonians and slightly fewer Australians. The lower number of New Caledonians in the survey may have been a result of the language barrier, as most are French speakers. The survey respondents were also similar in age, gender, the purpose of their visit and destination to the VIVS respondents. Given that the survey was not a random sample, this comparison demonstrates reasonable representation.

5. Results

5.1. Sample characteristics

A summary of the characteristics of the sample is presented in Table 2. Most of the visitors had arrived by air, with only 3% of respondents coming from cruise ships. Cruise ship visitors were not the focus of the survey due to the short time (generally one day) spent in Vanuatu and their tendency to eat their main meals aboard the ship. Nearly all of the respondents were either on holiday or visiting friends and relatives. For many tourists (58%), this was their first visit to Vanuatu. The majority of the tourists stayed in Vanuatu for between one and three weeks, and 58% were staying at resorts.

Table 1 presents the results associated with meat perceptions and consumption. The majority of tourists (72%) were not aware of Vanuatu beef before their first visit; however, 90% had eaten Vanuatu beef during their stay. Most of the respondents (67%) classified themselves as moderate meat consumers, eating meat between two-six times per week. Heavy meat consumers were the next largest group, with 14% eating meat every day, while 10% of the respondents identified as vegetarian. There was a group of consumers who had a strong liking for beef. They chose beef if it was on the menu and ate beef whenever they could. Eighty-three percent of respondents indicated they loved the taste of beef. Fewer than a third were trying to reduce their meat consumption. Health reasons were the most important driver for this, followed by concern for the environment. Only 14% were reducing meat consumption due to animal welfare concerns. Most respondents (69%) did not have a definite food choice when eating out but indicated they ‘always’ or ‘mostly’ chose what they felt like at the time. As may be expected on a tropical island, the majority of tourists associated Vanuatu cuisine with fish and seafood rather than beef.

5.2. Factor analysis

The underlying structure of the items for credence and experience quality attributes was identified using factor analysis. This also provided the composite values used in the regression analysis.

5.2.1. Beliefs before purchase and consumption

The first factor analysis examined tourists’ beliefs regarding the different quality attributes of Vanuatu beef before purchase and consumption. These tourists had no prior knowledge of Vanuatu beef before visiting Vanuatu. This resulted in a two-factor solution (Table 4) explaining 78.5% of the variance (Table 5). The result defined distinct factors for credence and experience quality attributes before purchase and consumption. These two constructs showed good internal consistency with a Cronbach’s Alpha value of 0.89 for the credence attributes and 0.95 for experience attributes. Though the Eigenvalue for experience attributes was less than one, scree plot analysis identified this as a distinct factor. The result supports hypothesis H1a.

Table 4. Beliefs regarding quality attributes of Vanuatu beef before purchase and consumption.

Construct	Measure	Factor loading	Cronbach’s Alpha
Credence quality attributes	No antibiotics	0.86	0.89
	Naturally raised	0.69
	Organic	0.65
Experience quality attributes	Tender	0.93	0.95
	High quality	0.85
	Great taste	0.79

Table 5. Percentage of variance explained – Beliefs regarding quality attributes before purchase and consumption.

	Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
Factor	Eigenvalues	% of variance	Cumulative %
1	5.50	40.7	40.7
2	0.76	37.8	78.5

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalisation.

5.2.2. Beliefs after purchase and consumption

A second factor analysis evaluated tourists’ perception of the quality attributes after they had purchased and consumed Vanuatu beef. These tourists also had no prior knowledge of Vanuatu beef before visiting Vanuatu. This analysis also showed two distinct factors relating to experience and credence attributes (Table 6) explaining 66.6% of the variance (Table 7). These constructs both showed good internal consistency with a Cronbach’s Alpha value of 0.89 for the credence attributes and 0.87 for experience attributes (Hair et al., 2010). These results support hypothesis H1b.

Table 6. Beliefs regarding quality attributes of Vanuatu beef after purchase and consumption.

Construct	Measure	Factor loading	Cronbach’s Alpha
Credence quality attributes	Organic	0.90	0.89
	Naturally raised	0.89
	Produced without antibiotics	0.81
Experience quality attributes	Tender	0.94	0.87
	Taste	0.90
	High quality	0.80

Table 7. Percentage of variance explained – Perception of quality attributes after purchase and consumption.

	Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
Factor	Eigenvalues	% Variance	Cumulative %
1	4.0	40.4	40.4
2	2.6	26.2	66.6

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalisation.

5.2.3 Importance of quality attributes

The final analysis also resulted in a two-factor solution (Table 8) explaining 71.0% of the variance (Table 9). The result indicates a distinct separation between constructs for the level of importance of credence and experience quality attributes (Table 4). These constructs both showed good internal consistency with a Cronbach’s Alpha value of 0.91 for the credence attributes and 0.79 for experience attributes (Hair et al., 2010). These results support hypothesis H1c.

Table 8. Quality attributes of beef that are important to tourists.

Construct	Measure	Factor loading	Cronbach’s Alpha
Credence quality attributes	Naturally raised	0.90	0.91
	Organic	0.81
	No antibiotics	0.76
Experience quality attributes	Tender	0.86	0.79
	Great taste	0.81
	High quality	0.75

Table 9. Percentage of variance explained – Importance of attributes.

	Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
Factor	Eigenvalues	% of variance	Cumulative %
1	3.5	44.0	44.0
2	2.2	27.0	71.0

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalisation.

The results of the factor analyses confirm that credence attributes and experience attributes are perceived as distinct constructs by tourists visiting Vanuatu. This is in line with Malek et al. (2019) who identified ‘production and origin focus’ and better sensory experience as different aspects of consumers’ motivations for meat purchase decisions.

5.3. Comparison of means

A comparison of the mean importance scores evaluated the differences in the importance tourists placed on credence and experience attributes as well as changes in these quality attribute beliefs from before to after purchase and consumption. This analysis was completed on the individual quality attributes as well as the composite scores from the factor analysis.

5.3.1. Importance of quality attributes

The mean importance scores of individual experience quality attributes were compared, and it was found that the three experience attributes (great taste, tenderness, and high quality) were significantly more important to tourists visiting Vanuatu than the individual credence attributes (Figure 4). This was consistent with the analysis of composite scores (Figure 6), indicating that tourists place more importance on experience attributes than credence attributes. These results align with previous studies by Grunert (1997), Fernqvist and Ekelund (2014), and Banović et al. (2009), which emphasised the importance of experience attributes such as taste, tenderness, and juiciness in shaping consumer quality perceptions and future purchase intentions. The prioritisation of experience attributes over credence attributes is consistent with Steenkamp’s (1990) claim that consumers’ perceptions of quality are primarily shaped by experience attributes, rather than credence attributes. This could be because credence attributes are typically further removed from consumers, both in terms of distance and time, and thus consumers tend to assign less importance to such distant outcomes (Berezowska et al., 2018; Pedersen et al., 2018; Wright & Weitz, 1977).

Figure 6. Comparison of importance scores for credence and experience quality attributes.

5.3.2. Change in tourists’ beliefs regarding quality attributes

Figure 5 shows the change in tourists’ beliefs regarding the attributes of Vanuatu beef. These are based on the composite scores for credence and experience attributes before and after purchase and consumption. The findings indicate that tourists’ beliefs of both credence and experience attributes were positively influenced by the consumption of Vanuatu beef. Notably, experience quality attributes exhibited the most significant increase, and all changes were statistically significant (p = .001). These results support the conceptual model (Figure 2), which emphasises the impact of purchase and consumption on consumers’ quality perceptions, particularly when they lack prior knowledge of the product. Although the increase in credence attributes was less pronounced, it was still statistically significant (p = .05). This suggests that beliefs regarding credence attributes are not solely influenced by product consumption but also by the surrounding environment in which the product is produced. Tourists likely observe the natural surroundings of the islands and may even witness cattle grazing on the islands’ natural pastures, thus shaping their beliefs about the product.

5.4. Regression analysis

5.4.1. Credence attribute beliefs - before purchase and consumption

The first regression analysis, as shown in Table 10, shows that neither of the independent variables was statistically significant. This suggests that tourists’ initial beliefs about Vanuatu beef’s credence attributes remain unchanged regardless of the level of importance they place on credence or experience attributes (personal factors). Therefore, this outcome does not support hypothesis H2a, as outlined in Table 11.

Table 10. Regression analysis for variables predicting credence quality beliefs - before purchase and consumption.

Credence (before)	Adjusted R^2	β standardised	Standard error	t-value	Sig
Excluded variables:	0.011
Experience (Importance)		0.058	0.218	0.349	0.728
Credence (Importance)		0.178	0.099	1.070	0.289

(p ≤ .05* p ≤ .01** p ≤ .001***).

Table 11. Summary of results of hypotheses.

Hypothesis	Result
H1a: Tourists perceive credence and experience quality attributes as distinct constructs before purchase and consumption.	Supported
H1b: Tourists perceive credence and experience quality attributes as distinct constructs following purchase and consumption.	Supported
H1c: Tourists perceive the level of importance of credence and experience quality attributes as distinct constructs.	Supported
H2a: There is a positive relationship between the level of importance tourists place on credence and experience attributes and their beliefs regarding these attributes before purchase and consumption.	Partially supported
H2b: There is a positive relationship between the level of importance tourists place on credence and experience attributes and their beliefs regarding these attributes after purchase and consumption.	Partially supported
H3a: There is a positive relationship between tourists’ beliefs regarding credence quality attributes before purchase and consumption and their beliefs regarding credence attribute beliefs after purchase and consumption.	Supported
H3b: There is a positive relationship between tourists’ beliefs regarding experience quality attributes before purchase and consumption and their beliefs regarding credence quality after purchase and consumption.	Not supported
H3c: There is a positive relationship between tourists’ beliefs regarding experience product quality attributes before purchase and consumption and their beliefs regarding experience quality attributes after purchase and consumption.	Not supported
H3d: There is a positive relationship between tourists’ beliefs regarding credence product quality attributes before product purchase and their beliefs regarding experience quality beliefs after purchase and consumption.	Not supported

5.4.2. Experience attribute beliefs – before purchase and consumption

The second regression analysis is presented in Table 12. This indicates that there is no significant association between the importance of experience attributes and tourists’ initial beliefs. However, there is a positive relationship between the importance of credence attributes and tourists’ initial beliefs concerning experience attributes. This partially supports hypothesis H2a, as stated in Table 11.

Table 12. Regression analysis for variables predicting experience quality beliefs before purchase and consumption.

Experience (Before)	Adjusted R^2	β standardised	Standard error	t-value	Sig
	0.16
Credence (Importance)		0.419**	0.101	3.326	0.002
Excluded variables:
Experience (Importance)		− 0.044	–	−0.288	0.774

(p ≤ .05* p ≤ .01** p ≤ .001***)

5.4.3. Credence attribute beliefs – after purchase and consumption

The third regression analysis, presented in Table 13, reveals two key findings. First, the importance tourists place on experience attributes was positively associated with their beliefs about credence attributes following purchase and consumption. Second, there was a positive correlation between their initial beliefs regarding experience attributes and subsequent beliefs about credence attributes. Together, these two variables accounted for more than half of the variance in credence attribute beliefs post-consumption. These results lend support to H3a, partially support H2a, and do not support H3b (as outlined in Table 11).

Table 13. Regression analysis for variables predicting credence quality beliefs - after purchase and consumption.

Credence (After)	Adjusted R^2	β standardised	Standard error	t-value	Sig
	0.51
Experience (Importance)		0.246**	0.122	2.255	0.030
Credence (before)		0.659***	0.086	6.050	0.000
Excluded variables:
Experience (before)		−0.124	–	−0.693	0.493
Credence (Importance)		−0.031	–	−0.212	0.833

(p ≤ .05* p ≤ .01** p ≤ .001***).

5.4.4. Experience attribute beliefs – after purchase and consumption

The final regression analysis, presented in Table 14, indicates that the level of importance tourists place on credence attributes was positively associated with their beliefs about experience attributes after purchase and consumption. However, the other three independent variables did not show significant effects. These results provide partial support for hypothesis H2b and do not support hypotheses H3c or H3d (as shown in Table 11).

Table 14. Regression analysis for variables predicting experience quality beliefs – after purchase and consumption.

Experience (After)	Adjusted R^2	β standardised	Standard error	t-value	Sig
	0.16
Credence (Importance)		0.421**	0.368	3.01	0.004
Excluded variables:
Experience (Importance)		0.184	–	0.936	0.355
Credence (before)		0.168		1.187	0.242
Experience (before)		0.156		1.007	0.455

(p ≤ .05* p ≤ .01** p ≤ .001***).

6. Discussion

The results of the study emphasise the important role of personal factors in shaping the beliefs of consumers regarding the quality attributes of beef. Specifically, the level of importance of credence attributes among tourists has a significant impact on their experience quality beliefs, both before and after purchasing and consuming beef. In contrast, the level of importance of experience quality only influenced credence attribute beliefs after purchase and consumption.

These findings align with earlier research by Loebnitz and Bröring (2015), which suggests that a consumer’s assessment of experience and credence attributes is influenced by their individual values and attitudes.

Based on the study’s findings, the level of importance tourists place on credence attributes significantly impacts their beliefs about experience attributes both before and after consumption. This is an important finding and highlights the connection between credence attributes and experience quality beliefs. This is consistent with previous research indicating the positive influence of credence attributes on consumers’ hedonic experience during consumption (Annett et al., 2008; Giezenaar et al., 2024; Ekelund et al., 2007; Kihlberg et al., 2005; Michael et al., 2008). However, there is limited knowledge about how the level of importance of experience attributes affects consumers’ perception of credence attributes following consumption. Although Anisimova (2016) has presented some evidence that consumers valuing hedonic attributes are more likely to purchase organic products, more research is required to understand this connection.

In contrast, the study found that the importance of credence attributes did not significantly affect tourists’ beliefs about credence attributes, both before and after consumption. Although this finding may seem counterintuitive, it aligns with some research that highlights a gap between the value consumers place on credence attributes and their actual purchasing behaviour. (Loebnitz & Bröring, 2015).

The low level of familiarity with Vanuatu beef among consumers may have influenced the study findings on product quality beliefs. Previous research on this topic has often overlooked the impact of familiarity (Banović et al., 2012). However, Bredahl’s (2004) study on beef products found that the relationship between expected and experienced quality was weaker for products that were less familiar to consumers. Given that Vanuatu beef is not well known before visiting Vanuatu, this effect could be even stronger.

Furthermore, consumers often struggle to accurately evaluate credence quality attributes, even after consuming the product (Wang et al., 2024). This difficulty may explain why tourist’s beliefs regarding credence attributes before purchase and consumption are strongly related to their beliefs after consumption. Since credence attributes are not easily verified, beliefs about them are less likely to change (Yang et al., 2020). Therefore, these beliefs (before) can significantly predict credence attributes (after). When combined with the importance of experience attribute beliefs (before), these variables account for over half of the variance in credence attribute beliefs after purchase and consumption.

The absence of a significant relationship between the importance of experience attributes and experience attribute beliefs after purchase and consumption is not surprising, as the evaluation of experience quality is influenced by multiple factors. Previous studies have identified various factors that impact the evaluation of experience quality, such as quality expectations (Fernqvist & Ekelund, 2014), quality cues (Steenkamp, 1990), product description (De Araujo et al., 2005), and credence quality cues (Banović et al., 2009), as well as environmental stimuli. Therefore, it is unlikely that the significance placed on experience attributes alone would significantly influence consumers’ beliefs about experience quality attributes after buying and consuming a product.

Finally, the study found no significant relationship between the experience attribute beliefs before and after purchase and consumption. This result is consistent with previous research that has shown that perceptions of experience quality before consumption are not reliable predictors of actual experience quality (Banović et al., 2012; Bredahl, 2004; Brunsø et al., 2005; Steenkamp, 1990).

7. Conclusion

The study’s findings partially confirm the research hypotheses, indicating that tourists’ pre-existing beliefs about credence quality attributes play a significant role in shaping their beliefs about these attributes after purchase and consumption. Additionally, the study partially supports the impact of personal factors, specifically the level of importance placed on quality attributes affects tourists’ beliefs before and after purchase and consumption. Specifically, the importance of credence attributes has a significant influence on tourists’ experience quality beliefs before and after purchase and consumption, while the importance of experience attributes only affects their beliefs about credence attributes after purchase and consumption.

7.1. Theoretical implications

The study provides valuable insights into the factors that influence tourists’ beliefs about the quality aspects of local cuisine and how they form their perceptions of quality during their travel experiences. These contributions are particularly important, given the strong link between tourists’ gastronomic experiences and their overall satisfaction with their travel experiences (Azic et al., 2023; Choe & Kim, 2018; Kim et al., 2021; Kovalenko et al., 2023).

The study offers empirical evidence supporting the influence of personal factors, specifically the level of importance placed by consumers on experience and credence attributes, in shaping their beliefs about beef quality attributes. The research also identifies the distinct effects of these factors on the formation of quality attribute beliefs, both before and after purchase and consumption when there is little prior knowledge of the product. This novel finding provides crucial insights into the complex factors that shape beef quality perceptions. Moreover, the study sheds light on the impact of purchase and consumption on the formation of beliefs regarding the credence and experience attributes of beef. Unlike many previous studies that focus only on credence attributes, this research underscores the importance of considering both types of attributes to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the beef quality perception process (Aboah & Lees, 2020).

Finally, this study expands upon the limited research that exists regarding the factors that impact tourists’ beliefs about the quality attributes of local cuisine during their travel experiences. This is in contrast to the majority of previous research that has focused on beef consumers who make purchases in retail environments for home consumption. This study emphasises the importance of taking contextual differences into account when studying the perception of beef quality.

7.2. Management implications

This research carries significant implications for managers in the tourist industry, especially in developing countries such as Vanuatu, where tourism is a major driver of economic growth and development. While the study focuses on beef in Vanuatu as a local specialty, its broader relevance potentially extends to other destinations featuring other local food specialties. An important implication is recognizing situations where tourists have limited familiarity with local cuisine before their visit. As a result, there is a need to tailor information and messaging for tourists both prior to and during their visit, with a specific emphasis on credence attributes.

The research demonstrates that credence attributes directly impact experience attribute beliefs and consequently, influence tourists’ gastronomic experiences. This is crucial, due to the strong link that has been identified between tourist gastronomic experiences and overall satisfaction with travel. Therefore, this is important for enhancing the destination’s reputation and attracting more visitors. Information dissemination about credence attributes can take various forms, including market messages delivered through digital and traditional promotional channels. Culinary tourism can be promoted by highlighting the quality, production system, or natural origin of local food. This may involve organizing food tours, visits to local farming operations, and culinary events that focus on both the eating experience and the authentic and natural aspects of local food.

The study also suggests that managers should not prioritise promoting credence attributes over eating quality attributes such as taste and tenderness in the case of beef. Both attributes can complement each other to enhance the overall tourist experience. The research shows that tourists place greater importance on the eating quality of beef than on credence attributes like no antibiotics, naturally raised, and organic. Ensuring the eating quality of the beef or other products is essential for restaurant operators, emphasising the need for a high-quality product to ensure tourist satisfaction.

Furthermore, the research can assist tourist operators in targeting tourists with specific characteristics. By focusing marketing efforts on tourists who prioritise credence attributes, there is a higher likelihood of creating a positive perception of the eating quality of a local specialty. This affects the overall culinary experience and increases satisfaction with the tourist destination. Social media marketing, targeting tourists with these specific values or interests, can be instrumental in attracting this type of tourist, contributing to a more tailored and satisfying tourist experience.

7.3. Limitations and further research

The study offers several opportunities for future research. First, it can be extended to explore the relationship between tourists’ beef quality attribute beliefs following purchase and consumption and their overall satisfaction with their gastronomic experience. Second, the study can be broadened to include other tourist destinations where there is significant prior knowledge of beef quality attributes, such as Argentina, the USA, Australia, or New Zealand. Third, the study only considered the importance of quality attribute beliefs as the personal factor variable. Further research could identify other significant personal factors that could influence beef quality beliefs. Finally, research using a qualitative or mixed methods approach could provide deeper insight into tourists’ beliefs regarding the quality attributes of Vanuatu beef.

The study, however, has some limitations. Relying on retrospective evaluations of beliefs about Vanuatu beef may introduce recall bias. The study only considers one aspect of personal factors, and there may be other factors at play that affect perceptions of beef quality attributes. For example, the research does not account for situational factors that may influence the tourists’ perception of the product. Nonetheless, the study enhances our understanding of the complex process of quality perception of food products and supports the notion that there is still much to learn about this process (Fernqvist & Ekelund, 2014).

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (MFAT).

Disclosure statement

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, N. Lees upon reasonable request.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Nic Lees

Dr Nic Lees is a Senior Lecturer in Agribusiness Management and Director of the Agribusiness and Food Marketing Programme in the Faculty of Agribusiness and Commerce at Lincoln University, in New Zealand. His research interests are agri-food supply chain management and marketing.

Jill Greenhalgh

Jill Greenhalgh is a research officer in at Lincoln University with research interests in agricultural employment relations, education, social geography, and development studies.