On English translation variation of similar plural nouns in the Holy Quran

Abstract

This study aims to explore the difficulties involved in translating similar plural nouns in the Holy Quran from Arabic into English. It specifically investigates 21 plural nouns derived from seven singular nouns in the Holy Quran and discusses their exegetic contexts and translation into English. To achieve this aim, the study tracks singular nouns where three plurals are derived from each of them. The meaning of each singular noun is looked up in Al-Mu’jam Al-Waseet, typically the most reliable Arabic dictionary. These meanings are also checked in Ibn Katheer’s explication, an accredited Islamic exegesis. The study also compares the translation of these nouns into English in two translations: Translation of the meanings of the Noble Qur’an in the English language by Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) and The meaning of the Holy Qur’an by Ali (1999). The findings show that broken plurals which derive from the same root or singular noun are slightly different in meaning. This nuance is a result of the morphological pattern of the plural. These patterns may denote abundance, rarity, size, form, or time. These differences are actually ignored in translation, i.e. similar broken plurals are rendered into English as if they were synonyms in Arabic, which is not the case.

Keywords:

• Plural nouns
• the Holy Quran
• Arabic-English translation

1. Introduction

Given the sanctity and sensitivity of the text of the Holy Quran, its translations are intended to interpret, rather than translate, the meanings (Khalaf & Yusoff, 2012). Because of its uniqueness as a sacred text, some Muslim scholars argue that the Holy Quran is untranslatable. As a result, existing translations of the Holy Quran may be considered possible interpretations because such rendering may result in a change in the original text’s meaning. Muslim scholars believe that there is no synonymy or redundancy in the Holy Quran. The unique morphological system of the verses demonstrates this eloquence. Many items can be derived from a single trilateral root or singular noun; however, each item can have a different meaning. In any given context, no other closely related word can convey the exact meaning of Quranic lexis as well as the original word.

In terms of the clarity of the meaning of Quranic verses, there are two types: muhkamat (well-structured) and mutashabihat (similar). The former refers to verses with a single meaning that laypeople can understand, while the latter refers to verses that have two or more possible meanings and, as a result, require an expert in Arabic morphology and semantics, Quranic studies, and interpretation to decipher their various possible meanings. In the following verse, muhkamat and mutashabihat appear together:

(هُوَ الَّذِي أَنزَلَ عَلَيْكَ الْكِتَابَ مِنْهُ آيَاتٌ مُّحْكَمَاتٌ هُنَّ أُمُّ الْكِتَابِ وَأُخَرُ مُتَشَابِهَاتٌ ۖ فَأَمَّا الَّذِينَ فِي قُلُوبِهِمْ زَيْغٌ فَيَتَّبِعُونَ مَا تَشَابَهَ مِنْهُ ابْتِغَاءَ الْفِتْنَةِ وَابْتِغَاءَ تَأْوِيلِهِ ۗ وَمَا يَعْلَمُ تَأْوِيلَهُ إِلَّا اللَّهُ ۗ وَالرَّاسِخُونَ فِي الْعِلْمِ يَقُولُونَ آمَنَّا بِهِ كُلٌّ مِّنْ عِندِ رَبِّنَا ۗ وَمَا يَذَّكَّرُ إِلَّا أُولُو الْأَلْبَاب) (Q3: 7)

It is He who has sent down to you, [O Muhammad], the Book; in it are verses [that are] precise - they are the foundation of the Book - and others unspecific. As for those in whose hearts is deviation [from truth], they will follow that of it which is unspecific, seeking discord and seeking an interpretation [suitable to them]. And no one knows its [true] interpretation except Allah. But those firm in knowledge say, “We believe in it. All [of it] is from our Lord.” And no one will be reminded except those of understanding (Sahih International Translation).

Many nouns in the Holy Quran have similar dual or triple plurals, but a minor change in any will result in a change in meaning. The use of three plural nouns of the same singular noun does not imply repetition, but rather that these plurals, while similar, involve a semantic or linguistic nuance. As a result, Muslims believe that synonymy does not exist in the Holy Quran. The interpretation and differentiation of similar plural nouns is a good example of Quranic precision and accuracy.

Translating broken plurals into English presents a significant challenge for the translator because the morphological pattern of the target language (TL) (English) differs significantly from that of the source language (SL) (Arabic) (see below for a discussion of these differences). In other words, because English does not have three plurals of the same singular noun, it lacks equivalents for some Arabic plurals. Translating these plurals in the same way will almost certainly result in translation loss. This research analyzes threefold plural nouns in the Holy Quran, as well as their translations from Arabic to English. It sheds light on similar plurals found in the Holy Quran, as well as their slightly different meanings and translations. The study specifically seeks to answer the following questions:

1. What is/are the difference(s) in meaning between similar plural nouns in the Holy Quran?

2. What are the difficulties in translating similar plurals from Arabic into English in the Holy Quran?

3. How successful are the available translations in conveying the ST plurals into English?

2. Literature Review

2.1. Theoretical Background

Much research has been conducted in the literature on Arabic linguistics to describe the structure of the language and/or the functions of its use (see, for example, M. A. Jarrah et al., 2019; M. Jarrah et al., 2021). However, there has been little research on interlinguistic variations, particularly between Arabic and English. Because Arabic is a Semitic language, its grammar is very different from that of English. The basis of Arabic words is a tri-consonantal root, which is referred to in literature as triconsonantalism (see Ratcliffe, 2006, p. 80). The kalima “word” in Arabic is a difficult linguistic construct to define. Arabic nouns are classified into two genders: masculine and feminine. They have three cases as well: nominative, accusative, and genitive (see Abu-Chacra, 2018).

In terms of numbers, unlike English nouns, which can be singular or plural, Arabic nouns are inflected for three numbers: singular, dual, or plural (Abu-Chacra, 2018). The suffixes aani and ayni are added to the singular form to form the Arabic dual. The dual form of waladun, for example, is waladaani or waladayni (note that the singular case ending is deleted when the dual inflecting suffix is added). The Arabic plural is divided into two types: sound plural and broken plural (Salim, 2013). The sound plural (also known as “external plural” according to Abu-Chacra (2018), p. 97) can be masculine or feminine. The suffixes uuna and iina are added to the singular form to form the sound masculine plural (after deleting the singular case ending, as noted earlier). The Arabic word muhandisun, which means “a male engineer,” is pluralized by adding iina or uuna to the singular muhandisiina or muhandisuuna. Furthermore, the feminine plural is formed by appending the suffixes aatun and aatin to the singular form after removing the singular case ending. For example, the plural of muhandisatun “a female engineer” is muhandisaatun or muhandisaatin.

The broken plural (also known as the “internal plural” Abu-Chacra, 2018, p. 195) takes several forms, and the meaning of each form is determined by its morphological pattern. In Arabic, the broken plural, which is the irregular form, is more common than the sound form, in contrast to English, where the regular plural form is more common. The broken plural can be used for both masculine and feminine nouns. The Arabic word waladun, which means “a boy,” is a masculine singular noun that is pluralized by changing its internal structure, yielding awlaadun. In English, however, the plural of “boy” is simply “boys.” It should be noted that some singular nouns can have multiple broken plurals. The word taalibun, which means “a student,” has two broken plurals: tulaabun and talabatun. Furthermore, some singular nouns can have a sound as well as a broken plural. The word wardatun, which means “a rose,” has the sound plural wardaatun and the broken plural wuruudun.

It should be noted that in Arabic, the terms “countable” and “uncountable” nouns do not exist; every singular noun has one or more plurals, and their form(s) differ from the singular, as explained above. It should also be noted that the irregular plural in Arabic is formed arbitrarily. Arabic-speaking children or second language Arabic learners would be unable to determine the plural of kitaabun “a book” and mistarah “a ruler for measurement” on their own because the former is a masculine singular noun, and the latter is a feminine singular noun. Based on these two facts, it’s no surprise that kutubun “books” is listed as the plural of kitaabun “a book” in an Arabic dictionary. This is especially true for irregular plurals. Similarly, the two irregular plural nouns fujjar and fajarah are the plural forms of faajir, which means “a wicked person” in Arabic. In other words, there is no distinction between the two plurals.

Based on the foregoing, it is clear that pluralization in English differs from pluralization in Arabic. The definition of the word “plural” in the Oxford dictionary is clear: “(of a word or form) denoting more than one, or (in languages with dual number) more than two.” That is, while English has two number inflections, singular and plural, Arabic has three, as discussed above, singular, dual, and plural. Furthermore, Arabic, unlike English, has distinct gender-related plurals. Some singular nouns in Arabic can have three different plural forms. The Arabic word sunbulatun, which means “an ear of corn or wheat,” can be pluralized as sanaabilun, sunbulun, and sunbulatun. Similarly, mayyitun, which means “dead person,” has three plural forms: amwaatun, mawtaa, and mayyituun. These words, along with many others, can be found in the Holy Quran.

2.2. Previous Studies

According to Al-Salem (2008, p. 3), “some Muslim Qur’anic translators have been very careful to adhere to the Qur’anic text, maintaining its structure and vocabulary as much as the target language systems allow.” Some Quranic texts, on the other hand, may be difficult to translate. Some words in the Holy Quran, for example, appear in multiple forms. It is possible that no two words have the same meaning; that is, there are no true synonyms. Muslim scholars have argued that there is no such thing as synonymy in the Holy Quran because every word in the Holy Quran communicates a specific message that no other word can.

Upon reviewing the literature on the Holy Quran translation, we noticed that very few studies examined grammatical concerns of translations of the Quranic verses. For example, Abdelaal and Md Rashid (2016) investigated grammatical and semantic losses in the translation of the Holy Quran into English by examining the translation of Surah Al A’araf into English. The researchers found that differences between the two languages result in grammatical loss when rendering the Arabic text into English. It was also found that the grammatical loss has an impact on meaning; that is, it results in semantic loss when reading the verses from the English text. In particular, the study showed that there are problems in translating grammatical structures such as “conjunctions, syntactic order, duality, tense, and verbs” (p. 1). These problems were found to contribute to a loss of meaning which calls for caution in the translation of sacred texts such as the Holy Quran.

In a more recent study, Abdelaal (2019) explored how faithfulness is achieved in the translation of the Holy Quran adopting the Skopos theory of translation which stipulates that faithful translation is that which achieves the least number of differences in meaning rather than sameness by attempting to capture the stylistic features of the text. In his study, the researcher examined the problems encountered by translators of the Quranic text from the perspective of the Skopos theory by analysing six verses from the Holy Quran. The results show that there are problems in the four translations checked in rendering the meaning of the verse in Arabic and that faithfulness in translating the Holy Quran is better achieved with reference to meaning rather than stylistic structutres. Alsharou (2016) examined the translation of emphasis in the Holy Quran by evaluating two translations of the Holy Quran (Pickthall, 1930 and Arberry, 1955) to show how emphasis is rendered in English. The study showed that “having no equivalent emphasizers in English to the ones found in the source text, or failing to spot the significance of these emphasizers, can lead to problems in the translation process” (p. 5). The study also found that in both translations there was a loss of meaning in rendering emphatic structures into English. The researcher also provided alternative translations of the verses which include emphasis in the Holy Quran.

Al-Jabari (2008) investigated (in)comprehensibility of the English translations of the Holy Quran highlighting the reasons for the difficulties which readers of the translated text have in understanding the meaning of the verses. The study provided a new methodology to render the Quranic text into English without causing much difficulty in understanding the message from the translated text and highlighted the role of the translator in transferring the meaning of the Quranic text into the second language.

When it comes to translation, if a person was to translate the word “boys” from English into Arabic, it would be awlaadun. Conversely, if a person was to translate the word awlaadun from Arabic into English, s/he would translate it into “boys”, or maybe into “children.” What if a singular Arabic word had two or more plurals in the different forms mentioned above? Would they all be synonyms and therefore translated similarly into English? Or would each form of plural have a slight difference in its Arabic meaning implying it should be translated differently in English? When we have two plurals, what is the difference in meaning between them? Is there an equivalent for each of them in the TL? If not so, shall these plurals be translated identically? These questions are raised and explored in this study.

3. Methodology

The study provides a qualitative analysis of the different plural nouns derived from the same singular noun in the Holy Quran. Types of these plurals and the nuance in their meanings are analyzed. Two different translations are examined for appropriacy in rendering plural nouns into English: Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) and Ali (1999). We use, however, Sahih International Translation in our presentation of the verses. The validity and reliability of their translations into English are evaluated depending on Arabic lexicon and Quranic exegeses. The morphological pattern of each plural is also considered as it entails a special meaning, number, or gender. Findings and recommendations are presented at the end.

3.1. Data Collection

For the purpose of the study, seven singular nouns and their various plurals are located in different verses of the Holy Quran. Each plural noun appears in one of three different forms or derivations, and it is analyzed in terms of its occasion/exegesis. Thus, each of the resulting 21 forms of the plural nouns is studied individually through its own Quranic context. First, these ST plurals are looked up and explained as found in the Arabic dictionary Almu’jam Alwaseet. These nouns are also checked in their contexts in the islamic accredited exegeses of Ibn Katheer in order to find the exact meaning of each of them. Finally, their translations are checked in Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) and Ali (1999) to assess the degree of accuracy of their translations.

3.2. Analysis

As noted above, seven singular nouns were found to have three plurals in various positions in the Quran. We analyse each singular noun below by presenting the three plurals, followed by the translations.

3.2.1. Sunbulatun

The first noun is sunbulatun (see translation below) which has the three plurals of sanaabila, sunbulaatin and sunbulun. The first plural is defined in Almu’jam Alwaseet as “the plural of sunbulatun, which means ears of barley or maize.” Ibn Katheer also explicates it as “ears.” This plural appears in only one position in the Quran (in Surat Albaqara, verse 261).

مَّثَلُ الَّذِينَ يُنفِقُونَ أَمْوَالَهُمْ فِي سَبِيلِ اللَّهِ كَمَثَلِ حَبَّةٍ أَنبَتَتْ سَبْعَ سَنَابِلَ فِي كُلِّ سُنبُلَةٍ مِّائَةُ حَبَّةٍ وَاللَّهُ يُضَاعِفُ لِمَن يَشَاء وَاللَّهُ وَاسِعٌ عَلِيمٌ

The example of those who spend their wealth in the way of Allah is like a seed [of grain] which grows seven spikes; in each spike is a hundred grains. And Allah multiplies [His reward] for whom He wills. And Allah is all-Encompassing and Knowing (Sahih International Translation).

As for the translation of sanabila Al-Hilali and Khan (Al-Hilali & Khan, 1983) render the verse as “The likeness of those who spend their wealth in the Way of Allah is as the likeness of a grain (of corn); it grows seven ears, and each ear has a hundred grains.” Ali, similarly, translates the verse as “The likeness of those who spend their wealth in Allah’s way is as the likeness of a grain which groweth seven ears, in every ear a hundred grains.”

The second plural appears in two positions in the Quran (in Surat Yusuf, verses 43 & 46), as follows:

وَقَالَ الْمَلِكُ إِنِّي أَرَى سَبْعَ بَقَرَاتٍ سِمَانٍ يَأْكُلُهُنَّ سَبْعٌ عِجَافٌ وَسَبْعَ سُنبُلاتٍ خُضْرٍ وَأُخَرَ يَابِسَاتٍ يَا أَيُّهَا الْمَلأُ أَفْتُونِي فِي رُؤْيَايَ إِن كُنتُمْ لِلرُّؤْيَا تَعْبُرُونَ

And [subsequently] the king said, “Indeed, I have seen [in a dream] seven fat cows being eaten by seven [that were] lean, and seven green spikes [of grain] and others [that were] dry. O eminent ones, explain to me my vision, if you should interpret visions” (Sahih International Translation).

يُوسُفُ أَيُّهَا الصِّدِّيقُ أَفْتِنَا فِي سَبْعِ بَقَرَاتٍ سِمَانٍ يَأْكُلُهُنَّ سَبْعٌ عِجَافٌ وَسَبْعِ سُنبُلاتٍ خُضْرٍ وَأُخَرَ يَابِسَاتٍ لَّعَلِّي أَرْجِعُ إِلَى النَّاسِ لَعَلَّهُمْ يَعْلَمُونَ

[He said], “Joseph, O man of truth, explain to us about seven fat cows eaten by seven [that were] lean, and seven green spikes [of grain] and others [that were] dry - that I may return to the people; perhaps they will know [about you]” (Sahih International Translation).

Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) render verse 43 as: “And the king (of Egypt) said: ‘Verily, I saw (in a dream) seven fat cows, whom seven lean ones were devouring, and seven green ears of corn, and (seven) others dry’”. Ali (1999) translates the same verse as “(And the king said: Lo! I saw in a dream seven fat kine which seven lean were eating, and seven green ears of corn and other (seven) dry”. These meanings are built upon Ibn Katheer, who uses “seven green ears and seven others dry”. As for verse 46, Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) render it as “(He said): ‘O Yûsuf (Joseph), the man of truth! Explain to us (the dream) of seven fat cows whom seven lean ones were devouring, and of seven green ears of corn, and (seven) others dry).” Ali (1999) translates the verse as: “Joseph! O thou truthful one! Expound for us the seven fat kine which seven lean were eating and the seven green ears of corn and other (seven) dry.”

The third plural is sunbulun, and it occurs in only one position (in Surat Yusuf, verse 47).

قَالَ تَزْرَعُونَ سَبْعَ سِنِينَ دَأَبًا فَمَا حَصَدتُّمْ فَذَرُوهُ فِي سُنبُلِهِ إِلاَّ قَلِيلاً مِّمَّا تَأْكُلُونَ

[Joseph] said, “You will plant for seven years consecutively; and what you harvest leave in its spikes, except a little from which you will eat (Sahih International Translation).

Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) render the verse as: “[(Yûsuf (Joseph)] said: ‘For seven consecutive years, you shall sow as usual and that (the harvest) which you reap you shall leave it in the ears, (all) except a little of it which you may eat’”. Ali (1999) translates the verse as “He said: ‘Ye shall sow seven years as usual, but that which ye reap, leave it in the ear, all save a little which ye eat’”. These possible meanings are taken from the explication of Ibn Katheer, who adds “to be preserved from decay and last longer.”

All interpreters adopt one meaning, which is “ears of corn/wheat” to render the meaning of sanaabila, sunbulaatin, and sunbulun in all verses. However, there are some nuances among the three plurals. The template faɔ āil as in sanaabil is used with numbers 3–10, and it refers to full or large size ears (Each ear has a hundred grains). The plural sunbulaat is a regular feminine plural; it is used with numbers 3–10 too and denotes normal ears. The template fuɔ lul as in sunbul, however, is not bound by numbers as no number can be used before it; it refers to a countless number of ears in their original form, i.e. before they are ground (But that which ye reap, leave it in the ear). These slight differences are not taken into account in translation.

3.2.2. Kaafirun

There are three plurals of the singular noun kaafirun: kaafiruun, kafarah, and kuffaar. Their trilateral root is ka fa ra. The first plural is masculine sound plural, and the last two are broken plurals and can be used for both masculine and feminine. In Almu’jam Alwaseet, “opposite of faith” is given as the meaning of the noun kufur and “disbelievers, rejecters and deniers” as meanings of each of the three plural nouns above.

The first plural is kaafiruun (or kaafiriin, based on its case), and it appears in 126 verses. For the sake of illustration, only two examples are given here. The first example is from Surat Yunus (verse 2).

أَكَانَ لِلنَّاسِ عَجَبًا أَنْ أَوْحَيْنَا إِلَى رَجُلٍ مِّنْهُمْ أَنْ أَنذِرِ النَّاسَ وَبَشِّرِ الَّذِينَ آمَنُواْ أَنَّ لَهُمْ قَدَمَ صِدْقٍ عِندَ رَبِّهِمْ قَالَ الْكَافِرُونَ إِنَّ هَذَا لَسَاحِرٌ مُّبِينٌ

Have the people been amazed that We revealed [revelation] to a man from among them, [saying], “Warn mankind and give good tidings to those who believe that they will have a [firm] precedence of honor with their Lord”? [But] the disbelievers say, “Indeed, this is an obvious magician” (Sahih International Translation).

Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) render the verse as “Is it a wonder for mankind that We have sent Our Revelation [2] to a man from among themselves (i.e. Prophet Muhammad) (saying): ‘Warn mankind (of the coming torment in Hell), and give good news to those who believe (in the Oneness of Allâh and in His Prophet Muhammad) that they shall have with their Lord the rewards of their good deeds?’ (But) the disbelievers say:” This is indeed an evident sorcerer (i.e. Prophet Muhammad and the Qur’ân!” Ali (1999) translates the same verse as “Is it a wonder for mankind that We have inspired a man among them, saying: Warn mankind and bring unto those who believe the good tidings that they have a sure footing with their Lord? The disbelievers say: Lo! This is a mere wizard.”

The second example is found in Surat Ghafir (verse 14).

فَادْعُوا اللَّهَ مُخْلِصِينَ لَهُ الدِّينَ وَلَوْ كَرِهَ الْكَافِرُونَ

So invoke Allah, [being] sincere to Him in religion, although the disbelievers dislike it (Sahih International Translation).

Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) render this verse as “So, call you (O Muhammad and the believers) upon (or invoke) Allâh making (your) worship pure for Him (Alone) (by worshipping none but Him and by doing religious deeds sincerely for Allâh’s sake only and not to show off and not to set up rivals with Him in worship), however much the disbelievers (in the Oneness of Allâh) may hate (it).” Ali (1999) translates the same verse as “Therefor (O believers) pray unto Allah, making religion pure for Him (only), however much the disbelievers be averse.”

The second plural is kafarah, and it occurs in only one position (in Surat Abasa, verse 42).

أُوْلَئِكَ هُمُ الْكَفَرَةُ الْفَجَرَةُ

“Those are the disbelievers, the wicked ones” (Sahih International Translation).

Ibn Katheer interprets kafarah as “disbelievers in their hearts.” Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) render the verse as “Such will be the Kafarah (disbelievers in Allâh, in His Oneness, and in His Messenger Muhammad, etc.), the Fajarah (wicked evil doers).” Ali (1999) translates the same verse as “Those are the disbelievers, the wicked.”

The third plural of kaafir is kuffaar, and it occurs in 20 verses, two of which are used here for analysis. The first occurrence is in Surat AlBaqarah (verse 161).

إِنَّ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا وَمَاتُوا وَهُمْ كُفَّارٌ أُوْلَئِكَ عَلَيْهِمْ لَعْنَةُ اللَّهِ وَالْمَلائِكَةِ وَالنَّاسِ أَجْمَعِينَ

Indeed, those who disbelieve and die while they are disbelievers - upon them will be the curse of Allah and of the angels and the people, all together (Sahih International Translation).

Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) translate the verse as “Verily, those who disbelieve, and die while they are disbelievers, it is they on whom is the Curse of Allah and of the angels and of mankind, combined.” Ali, on the other hand, translates it as “Those who reject Faith, and die rejecting, on them is Allah’s curse, and the curse of angels, and of all mankind.”

The second occurrence is in Surat AlMutaffifeen (verse 34).

فَالْيَوْمَ الَّذِينَ آمَنُواْ مِنَ الْكُفَّارِ يَضْحَكُونَ

“So Today those who believed are laughing at the disbelievers” (Sahih International Translation).

Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) render the verse as “But this Day (the Day of Resurrection) those who believe will laugh at the disbelievers.” Ali (1999) translates the same verse as “This day it is those who believe who have the laugh of disbelievers.”

Thus, the plural nouns of kaafiruun, kafara, and kuffaar are translated into “disbelievers” in most verses following Ibn Katheer’s Arabic interpretation where it is suggested that the meanings are “disbelievers” and “unbelievers”, and to a lesser degree “rejecters”, “deniers”, or “those who have no belief in Allah”. Neither the Arabic lexicon nor the explication of Ibn Katheer differenciates between the three forms of these plurals. Translators, consequently, convey these same meanings into English and try to be as loyal to the original as the two languages allow.

Based on the morphological pattern of each entry, the form faɔ ilūn as in kaafiruun is a sound masculine plural that is used neutrally. The form faɔ alah, however, as in kafarah is a plural of abundance. It is used in Chapter 80, verse 42 above to denote the huge number of disbelievers on the Judgement Day. The third form fuɔ ɔ āl as in kuffaar is known as an exaggeration form. It refers to extreme disbelievers. Translation loss is clear in the renderings considered in this study.

3.2.3. Khaliifatun

Khaliifatun has three plurals that are found in the Quran: khalaa’if, khulafaa’, and khalfun. All three are broken plurals, i.e. they can refer to feminine or masculine. The trilateral root is kha la fa. The first plural noun is khalaa’if, and it appears in four positions, two of which are analysed here. The first occurrence is in Surat AlAna’am (verse 165)

وَهُوَ الَّذِي جَعَلَكُمْ خَلائِفَ الأَرْضِ وَرَفَعَ بَعْضَكُمْ فَوْقَ بَعْضٍ دَرَجَاتٍ لِّيَبْلُوَكُمْ فِي مَا آتَاكُمْ إِنَّ رَبَّكَ سَرِيعُ الْعِقَابِ وَإِنَّهُ لَغَفُورٌ رَّحِيمٌ

And it is He who has made you successors upon the earth and has raised some of you above others in degrees [of rank] that He may try you through what He has given you. Indeed, your Lord is swift in penalty; but indeed, He is Forgiving and Merciful (Sahih International Translation).

The second occurrence is in Surat Yunus (verse 14).

ثمَّ جَعَلْنَاكُمْ خَلائِفَ فِي الأَرْضِ مِن بَعْدِهِم لِنَنظُرَ كَيْفَ تَعْمَلُونَ

Then We made you successors in the land after them so that We may observe how you will do (Sahih International Translation).

Ibn Katheer interprets the word khalaa’if in the four verses as “those who build the earth one generation after another and one century after another.” Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) translate the first verse as “And it is He Who has made you generations coming after generations, replacing each other on the earth. And He has raised you in ranks.” Ali (1999) translates it as “It is He Who hath made you (His) agents, inheritors of the earth: He hath raised you in ranks, some above others.”

Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) translate the second verse as “Then We made you successors after them, generations after generations in the land, that We might see how you would work.” Ali (1999)translates it as “Then We made you heirs in the land after them, to see how ye would behave!”

Out of loyalty to the original, Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) abide by Ibn Katheer’s literal exegesis, confirming the concept of continuity (generations after generations). Ali, however, uses “inheritors,” and “successors,” terms that do not reflect the precise meaning of continuity.

The second plural of khaliifatun is khulafaa’, and this plural occurs in three positions (two are analysed here). The first occurrence is in Surat AlA’raaf (verse 69), and the second is in Surat AlNamil (verse 62).

أَوَعَجِبْتُمْ أَن جَاءَكُمْ ذِكْرٌ مِّن رَّبِّكُمْ عَلَى رَجُلٍ مِّنكُمْ لِيُنذِرَكُمْ وَاذْكُرُواْ إِذْ جَعَلَكُمْ خُلَفَاء مِن بَعْدِ قَوْمِ نُوحٍ وَزَادَكُمْ فِي الْخَلْقِ بَسْطَةً فَاذْكُرُواْ آلاء اللَّهِ لَعَلَّكُمْ تُفْلِحُونَ

Then do you wonder that there has come to you a reminder from your Lord through a man from among you, that he may warn you? And remember when He made you successors after the people of Noah and increased you in stature extensively. So remember the favors of Allah that you might succeed (Sahih International Translation).

أَمَّن يُجِيبُ الْمُضْطَرَّ إِذَا دَعَاهُ وَيَكْشِفُ السُّوءَ وَيَجْعَلُكُمْ خُلَفَاء الأَرْضِ أَإِلَهٌ مَّعَ اللَّهِ قَلِيلا مَّا تَذَكَّرُونَ

Is He [not best] who responds to the desperate one when he calls upon Him and removes evil and makes you inheritors of the earth? Is there a deity with Allah? Little do you remember (Sahih International Translation).

Ibn Katheer interprets khulafaa’ in the the first verse as “belonging to the tribes of Noah and Âd respectively” and interprets it in the second as “a generation after a generation” especially because it collocates with the land. Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) translate the first verse as “Do you wonder that there has come to you a Reminder (and an advice) from your Lord through a man from amongst you to warn you? And remember that He made you successors after the people of Nûh (Noah) and increased you amply in stature.” Ali (1999) translates it as “Do ye wonder that there hath come to you a message from your Lord through a man of your own people, to warn you? call in remembrance that He made you inheritors after the people of Noah, and gave you a stature tall among the nations.”

Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) translate the second verse as “Is not He (better than your gods) Who responds to the distressed one, when he calls on Him, and Who removes the evil, and makes you inheritors of the earth, generations after generations? Is there any ilâh (god) with Allâh? Little is that you remember!”. Ali (1999) translates it as “Or, Who listens to the (soul) distressed when it calls on Him, and Who relieves its suffering, and makes you (mankind) inheritors of the earth? (Can there be another) god besides Allah. Little it is that ye heed.”

The third plural is khalfun, and it occurs in 2 positions. The first is in Surat AlA’raaf (verse 169), and the second is in Surat Maryam (verse 59).

فَخَلَفَ مِن بَعْدِهِمْ خَلْفٌ وَرِثُواْ الْكِتَابَ يَأْخُذُونَ عَرَضَ هَذَا الأَدْنَى وَيَقُولُونَ سَيُغْفَرُ لَنَا وَإِن يَأْتِهِمْ عَرَضٌ مِّثْلُهُ يَأْخُذُوهُ أَلَمْ يُؤْخَذْ عَلَيْهِم مِّيثَاقُ الْكِتَابِ أَن لاَّ يَقُولُواْ عَلَى اللَّهِ إِلاَّ الْحَقَّ وَدَرَسُواْ مَا فِيهِ وَالدَّارُ الآخِرَةُ خَيْرٌ لِّلَّذِينَ يَتَّقُونَ أَفَلاَ تَعْقِلُونَ

And there followed them successors who inherited the Scripture [while] taking the commodities of this lower life and saying, “It will be forgiven for us.” And if an offer like it comes to them, they will [again] take it. Was not the covenant of the Scripture taken from them that they would not say about Allah except the truth, and they studied what was in it? And the home of the Hereafter is better for those who fear Allah, so will you not use reason? (Sahih International Translation).

فَخَلَفَ مِن بَعْدِهِمْ خَلْفٌ أَضَاعُوا الصَّلاةَ وَاتَّبَعُوا الشَّهَوَاتِ فَسَوْفَ يَلْقَوْنَ غَيًّا

But there came after them successors who neglected prayer and pursued desires; so they are going to meet evil (Sahih International Translation).

Ibn Katheer interprets khalfun as “bad people.” Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) translate the first verse as “Then after them succeeded an (evil) generation, which inherited the Book, but they chose (for themselves) the goods of this low life (evil pleasures of this world) saying (as an excuse):”(Everything) will be forgiven to us.“And if (again) the offer of the like (evil pleasures of this world) came their way, they would (again) seize them (would commit those sins). Was not the covenant of the Book taken from them that they would not say about Allâh anything but the truth? And they have studied what is in it (the Book). And the home of the Hereafter is better for those who are Al-Muttaqûn (the pious—See V.2: 2). Do not you then understand?” Ali (1999) translates it as “After them succeeded an (evil) generation: They inherited the Book, but they chose (for themselves) the vanities of this world, saying (for excuse):”(Everything) will be forgiven us.“(Even so), if similar vanities came their way, they would (again) seize them.”

Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) translate the second verse as “Then, there has succeeded them a posterity who have given up As-Salât (the prayers) [i.e. made their Salât (prayers) to be lost, either by not offering them or by not offering them perfectly or by not offering them in their proper fixed times] and have followed lusts. [2] So they will be thrown in Hell.” Ali (1999) translates it as “But after them there followed a posterity who missed prayers and followed after lusts soon, then, will they face Destruction.”

The word khalfun occurs as an indefinite noun and in the nominative case. In the two verses above, it denotes bad people; the former chose evil pleasure and the latter lost the prayers. The translators adhere to Ibn Katheer in the first verse but use “posterity” in the second although this word, according to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2000), means “all the people who will live in the future” and is not exclusive to bad people.

In Arabic, the three words have different indications: khalaa’if is used for successors or inheritors who descended from the erring people who went astray of their previous prophet’s path; khulafaa’ is used for those who descended from the righteous folk and they were so named because they followed and applied the approach of their previous prophets; and khalfun is the group of sinners or male people who inherited or replaced the position. An explanatory translation strategy may be needed here as a direct equivalent will not fulfill the core semantic difference, as follows: khalaa’if as descendents of evil, khulafaa’ as descendents of the righteous, and khalfun as contraveners. Explanatory translation strategy may serve well in indicating these discrepancies.

3.2.4. Kalimah

Kalimah has the three plurals of kalaam, kalim, and kalimaat in the Quran. The first appears in four verses; two are analysed here. The first occurrence is in Surat AlBaqarah (verse 75).

أَفَتَطْمَعُونَ أَن يُؤْمِنُواْ لَكُمْ وَقَدْ كَانَ فَرِيقٌ مِّنْهُمْ يَسْمَعُونَ كَلامَ اللَّهِ ثُمَّ يُحَرِّفُونَهُ مِن بَعْدِ مَا عَقَلُوهُ وَهُمْ يَعْلَمُونَ

Do you covet [the hope, O believers], that they would believe for you while a party of them used to hear the words of Allah and then distort the Torah after they had understood it while they were knowing? (Sahih International Translation).

The second occurrence is in Surat AlA’raaf (verse 144).

قَالَ يَا مُوسَى إِنِّي اصْطَفَيْتُكَ عَلَى النَّاسِ بِرِسَالاتِي وَبِكَلامِي فَخُذْ مَا آتَيْتُكَ وَكُن مِّنَ الشَّاكِرِينَ

[Allah] said, “O Moses, I have chosen you over the people with My messages and My words [to you]. So take what I have given you and be among the grateful” (Sahih International Translation).

In Almu’jam Alwaseet, kalaam means “meaningful speech,” but when it collocates with God it is either “the Quran” or “God’s revelation.” Ibn Katheer interprets it as “the Torah” in the two verses as it is about the Jews in the first and about God’s address to Moses in the second. Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) translate kalaam in the first verse as “Word of Allâh [the Taurât (Torah)]”; Ali (1999) translates it as “the Word of Allah” without linking it to the Torah. Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) translate it in the second verse as “My speaking (to you)”; Ali (1999) translates it as “Words I (have spoken to thee).”

The second plural is kalim, and it appears in four verses. The first occurrence is in Surat AlNisaa’ (verse 46).

مِّنَ الَّذِينَ هَادُواْ يُحَرِّفُونَ الْكَلِمَ عَن مَّوَاضِعِهِ وَيَقُولُونَ سَمِعْنَا وَعَصَيْنَا وَاسْمَعْ غَيْرَ مُسْمَعٍ وَرَاعِنَا لَيًّا بِأَلْسِنَتِهِمْ وَطَعْنًا فِي الدِّينِ وَلَوْ أَنَّهُمْ قَالُواْ سَمِعْنَا وَأَطَعْنَا وَاسْمَعْ وَانظُرْنَا لَكَانَ خَيْرًا لَّهُمْ وَأَقْوَمَ وَلَكِن لَّعَنَهُمُ اللَّهُ بِكُفْرِهِمْ فَلاَ يُؤْمِنُونَ إِلاَّ قَلِيلاً

Among the Jews are those who distort words from their [proper] usages and say, “We hear and disobey” and “Hear but be not heard” and “Ra’ina,” twisting their tongues and defaming the religion. And if they had said [instead], “We hear and obey” and “Wait for us [to understand],” it would have been better for them and more suitable. But Allah has cursed them for their disbelief, so they believe not, except for a few (Sahih International Translation).

The second is in Surat AlMaa’idah (verse 13).

فَبِمَا نَقْضِهِم مِّيثَاقَهُمْ لَعَنَّاهُمْ وَجَعَلْنَا قُلُوبَهُمْ قَاسِيَةً يُحَرِّفُونَ الْكَلِمَ عَن مَّوَاضِعِهِ وَنَسُواْ حَظًّا مِّمَّا ذُكِّرُواْ بِهِ وَلاَ تَزَالُ تَطَّلِعُ عَلَىَ خَائِنَةٍ مِّنْهُمْ إِلاَّ قَلِيلاً مِّنْهُمُ فَاعْفُ عَنْهُمْ وَاصْفَحْ إِنَّ اللَّهَ يُحِبُّ الْمُحْسِنِينَ

So for their breaking of the covenant We cursed them and made their hearts hard. They distort words from their [proper] usages and have forgotten a portion of that of which they were reminded. And you will still observe deceit among them, except a few of them. But pardon them and overlook [their misdeeds]. Indeed, Allah loves the doers of good (Sahih International Translation).

The plural noun kalim means “the plural of word” in Almu’jam Alwaseet. This definition, however, is the same as that of the regular plural feminine kalimaat “words.” Ibn Katheer interprets this word as “the Torah” in the first two verses. Surprisingly, all translators in this study choose “words” for kalim depending on the Arabic lexicon above and ignoring Ibn Katheer.

The third plural is kalimaat, and it appears in 13 positions. We present two for analysis here. Both are in Surat AlBaqarah (verses 37 and 124).

فَتَلَقَّى آدَمُ مِن رَّبِّهِ كَلِمَاتٍ فَتَابَ عَلَيْهِ إِنَّهُ هُوَ التَّوَّابُ الرَّحِيمُ

Then Adam received from his Lord [some] words, and He accepted his repentance. Indeed, it is He who is the Accepting of repentance, the Merciful (Sahih International Translation).

وَإِذِ ابْتَلَى إِبْرَاهِيمَ رَبُّهُ بِكَلِمَاتٍ فَأَتَمَّهُنَّ قَالَ إِنِّي جَاعِلُكَ لِلنَّاسِ إِمَامًا قَالَ وَمِن ذُرِّيَّتِي قَالَ لاَ يَنَالُ عَهْدِي الظَّالِمِينَ

And [mention, O Muhammad], when Abraham was tried by his Lord with commands and he fulfilled them. [Allah] said, “Indeed, I will make you a leader for the people.” [Abraham] said, “And of my descendants?” [Allah] said, “My covenant does not include the wrongdoers” (Sahih International Translation).

In Almu’jam Alwaseet, the plural noun kalimaat is not given as it is simply the plural of kalimah (i.e., the plural of “word”). Ibn Katheer, too, opts for this meaning in some verses but explicates it differently or with more elaboration in other verses. He uses “commands” in the second example above. Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) abide by Ibn Katheer’s interpretation in the two verses above. Ali, on the other hand uses “words” in all occurrences.

Based on this analysis, we notice that, in the examples above, both Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) and Ali (1999) translate the plural nouns kalaam and kalim in a way that is compatible with the interpretation of Ibn Katheer. Although translating some of the examples of kalimaat as “words” conveys the meaning, other examples need a more detailed translation. In fact, they are translated as “words” while none of the Arabic interpretations sugggest “words”. Every verse above carries a meaning that fits the entire meaning of that particular verse. That is, kalaam, kalim, and kalimaat are translated as “words, commands or decisions.” These plurals sometimes have a special contextual meaning which should be preserved in translation, either by using footnotes or by explanatory translation. For example, the plural kalaam in verse 15 of Surat AlFath means “Allah’s promise of victory for the people of Huddaibyya.” The plural kalim in verse 46 of Surat AlNisaa’ means “the Taurât (Torah),” in verse 41 of Surat AlMaa’idah, it means “Allah’s judgement” or “Quran,” and in verse 10 of Surat Fatir, it means “the prayers, recitation and invocation of the slave to his God.” The plural kalimaat in verse 27 of Surat AlKahf and verse 64 of Surat Yunus means “the promise of Allah.”

3.2.5. Mayyit

The singular noun mayyit has the three plurals of amwaat, mawtaa, and mayyituun. The first plural amwaat appears in six positions in the Quran (two examples are presented here for analysis). The two chosen occurrences are in Surat AlBaqarah (verses 28 and 154).

كَيْفَ تَكْفُرُونَ بِاللَّهِ وَكُنتُمْ أَمْوَاتًا فَأَحْيَاكُمْ ثُمَّ يُمِيتُكُمْ ثُمَّ يُحْيِيكُمْ ثُمَّ إِلَيْهِ تُرْجَعُونَ

How can you disbelieve in Allah when you were lifeless and He brought you to life; then He will cause you to die, then He will bring you [back] to life, and then to Him you will be returned (Sahih International Translation).

وَلاَ تَقُولُواْ لِمَنْ يُقْتَلُ فِي سَبِيلِ اللَّهِ أَمْوَاتٌ بَلْ أَحْيَاء وَلَكِن لاَّ تَشْعُرُونَ

And do not say about those who are killed in the way of Allah, “They are dead.” Rather, they are alive, but you perceive [it] not (Sahih International Translation).

Ibn Katheer interprets the word in the two occurrences as “Nothing (Not born yet).” Al-Hilali and Khan (1983)translate it in the first verse as “Dead” while Ali (1999) translates it as “Ye were without life.” In the second verse, both translate as “Dead.”

The second plural is mawtaa, and it appears in 17 positions. Two examples are mentioned here. Both are in Surat AlBaqarah (verses 73 and 260).

فَقُلْنَا اضْرِبُوهُ بِبَعْضِهَا كَذَلِكَ يُحْيِي اللَّهُ الْمَوْتَى وَيُرِيكُمْ آيَاتِهِ لَعَلَّكُمْ تَعْقِلُونَ

So, We said, “Strike the slain man with part of it.” Thus does Allah bring the dead to life, and He shows you His signs that you might reason (Sahih International Translation).

وَإِذْ قَالَ إِبْرَاهِيمُ رَبِّ أَرِنِي كَيْفَ تُحْيِي الْمَوْتَى قَالَ أَوَلَمْ تُؤْمِن قَالَ بَلَى وَلَكِن لِّيَطْمَئِنَّ قَلْبِي قَالَ فَخُذْ أَرْبَعَةً مِّنَ الطَّيْرِ فَصُرْهُنَّ إِلَيْكَ ثُمَّ اجْعَلْ عَلَى كُلِّ جَبَلٍ مِّنْهُنَّ جُزْءًا ثُمَّ ادْعُهُنَّ يَأْتِينَكَ سَعْيًا وَاعْلَمْ أَنَّ اللَّهَ عَزِيزٌ حَكِيمٌ

And [mention] when Abraham said, “My Lord, show me how You give life to the dead.” [Allah] said, “Have you not believed?” He said, “Yes, but [I ask] only that my heart may be satisfied.” [Allah] said, “Take four birds and commit them to yourself. Then [after slaughtering them] put on each hill a portion of them; then call them - they will come [flying] to you in haste. And know that Allah is Exalted in Might and Wise” (Sahih International Translation).

Ibn Katheer interprets the word as “Dead” and both translators translate it as “Dead.”

The third plural is mayyituun, and it is a sound masculine plural. It appears in two positions. The first is in Surat AlMu’minuun (verse 15), and the second is in Surat AlZumar (verse 30).

ثُمَّ إِنَّكُمْ بَعْدَ ذَلِكَ لَمَيِّتُونَ

“Then indeed, after that you are to die” (Sahih International Translation).

إِنَّكَ مَيِّتٌ وَإِنَّهُم مَّيِّتُونَ

“Indeed, you are to die, and indeed, they are to die” (Sahih International Translation).

Ibn Katheer interprets the word in the two verses as “Dead”, and the two translators follow Ibn Katheer’s interpretation and render it as “will die.”

In all of the examples above, one translation has been rendered by both Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) and Ali (1999) with regard to the translation of the plural nouns amwaat, mawtaa, and mayyituun as “dead.” However, the two translators fail to deliver the exact meaning of each of them. By looking up the definitions of each of the plural nouns in Al-Maany Online dictionary and Mokhtar Al-Sehah dictionary, the researchers found that they all share the same definition. However, there is a slight difference between each of them. The plural noun amwaat carries two meanings. The first is the real death of people and their remaining in this state for a long time as in Surat Aal Imran (verse 169):

وَلاَ تَحْسَبَنَّ الَّذِينَ قُتِلُواْ فِي سَبِيلِ اللَّهِ أَمْوَاتًا بَلْ أَحْيَاء عِندَ رَبِّهِمْ يُرْزَقُونَ

And never think of those who have been killed in the cause of Allah as dead. Rather, they are alive with their Lord, receiving provision (Sahih International Translation).

The other meaning is the metaphorical death of people as in Surat Fater (verse 22):

وَمَا يَسْتَوِي الأَحْيَاء وَلا الأَمْوَاتُ إِنَّ اللَّهَ يُسْمِعُ مَن يَشَاء وَمَا أَنتَ بِمُسْمِعٍ مَّن فِي الْقُبُورِ

And not equal are the living and the dead. Indeed, Allah causes to hear whom He wills, but you cannot make hear those in the graves (Sahih International Translation).

For the purpose of delivering the exact meaning of the plural noun amwaat, the addition of “metaphorical” and “remaining in the state of death for a long time” to the translation of the two verses above may help in avoiding ambiguity. The plural noun mawtaa, however, denotes the real dead people or the deceased people. In most verses, this noun collocates with the word ahyaa which means “raise the dead”, as an indication of raising people after real death. The last plural noun mayyituun means the people who are not dead yet, but will definitely die in the future. Thus, in regard to this group of plural nouns, a slight difference between each of the plurals is located. Although the three plurals have a slight difference in meaning as they appear in the verses, they are all rendered by the two the translators as “dead.”

3.2.6. Shahiid/Shaahid

The singular nouns shahiid or shaahid have the three plurals of shuhadaa’, shaahidiin, and shuhuud. The first plural shuhadaa’ appears in 18 verses in the Quran. In Almu’jam Alwaseet, the word shuhadaa’ has the following meanings:

It is the plural of shahiid which means the one who is killed for the sake of God, homeland or duty or the one who is present. It also means the plural of shaahid which means the one who gives testimony or the witness, the one who is faithful in his testimony or the one who is present.

In their translations, both Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) and 1999) adopt the meaning of “witnesses” to render the meaning of shuhadaa’ in verses 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17. They use the meaning “present” in verses 2, 5, and 11. They also use “martyrs” in verses 6, 7, and 18. They use “supporters” in verse 1. Only this last verse is discussed below.

In Surat AlBaqarah (verse 23), Allah says:

وَإِن كُنتُمْ فِي رَيْبٍ مِّمَّا نَزَّلْنَا عَلَى عَبْدِنَا فَأْتُواْ بِسُورَةٍ مِّن مِّثْلِهِ وَادْعُواْ شُهَدَاءَكُم مِّن دُونِ اللَّهِ إِنْ كُنتُمْ صَادِقِينَ

And if you are in doubt about what We have sent down upon Our Servant [Muhammad], then produce a Surah the like thereof and call upon your witnesses other than Allah, if you should be truthful (Sahih International Translation).

Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) render the verse as “And if you (Arab pagans, Jews, and Christians) are in doubt concerning that which We have sent down (i.e. the Qur’ân) to Our slave (Muhammad), then produce a Sûrah (chapter) of the like thereof and call your witnesses (supporters and helpers) besides Allâh, if you are truthful.” Ali (1999) translates the same verse as “And if ye are in doubt as to what We have revealed from time to time to Our servant, then produce a Sura like thereunto; and call your witnesses or helpers (If there are any) besides Allah, if your (doubts) are true.” Translators add supportive meanings like (helpers and supporters) to elaborate possible meanings which are based on Ibn Katheer.

The second plural noun is shaahidiin or shaahiduun (based on case), and it appears in nine verses. The word shaahidiin has the following meanings in Almu’jam Alwaseet: the one who witnesses by his eyes, the one who gives a testimony in the court of what he hears by his ears, the one who is present, the proof, the angle and the prophet. Ibn Khatheer provides a special meaning of alshaahidiin in verse 53 Chapter 3, which is “the nation of Mohammad.” Neither Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) nor Ali (1999) translates this meaning for this particular plural. As for mina ashaahidiin in verse 44, Chapter 28, Ibn Katheer’s explication provides the meaning of “an eyewitness,” a meaning that none of the translators adopts.

The third plural noun is shuhuud which occurs in three verses. The form shuhuud is a plural of plurals which has a special meaning. In Arabic, one of the meanings that are indicated in using the plural of plural is that many are involved. Ibn Katheer’s explication provides the meaning of “present and seeing with your eyes.” Taking these two meanings into consideration, shuhuud may best be translated as “were present in crowds,” a translation none of the translators adopts.

What we notice from the analysis above is that the three plurals are all translated as “witnesses, helpers or martyrs.” In fact, they serve for other contextual meanings which made them slightly different. Shuhadaa’ in verse 133 Chapter 2 (Surat AlBaqarah), for example, means “were present,” while shuhuud in verse 7 Chapter 30 (Surat AlBuruj) means “were present in big numbers.” Such nuance in meaning is ignored in all translations considered in this study.

3.2.7. Saajid

Saajid is a singular noun that has the three plurals of saajidiin, sujjadan, and sujuud. The trilateral root is sa ja da. The first plural saajidiin appears in 10 verses in the Quran. It is the sound masculine plural of saajid. It is defined in Almu’jam Alwaseet as “the one who is putting the forehead on the ground, worshiping, being humiliated, and bowing down.” The two translators render saajidiin as “those who prostrated themselves,” “those who bow down” and “but the sorcerers fell down prostrate in adoration.” These choices seem to be acceptable, depending on Ibn Katheer explications.

The second plural is sujjadan, and it appears in 11 verses. The plural sujjadan in Chapter 2 is rendered in the two translations literally as “enter the gate prostrate, bowing with humility.” Ibn Katheer, however, provides a special meaning for sujjadan as “thankful to God for His victory.” This contextual meaning is ignored in translation. In Arabic rhetoric, the forms sujjadan and sujuud are exaggeration forms. Exaggeration here can be either in the action of bowing with humility or in the number of times of doing this action or both. Thus, the forms sujjadan and sujuud are slightly different from the third form in the level or number of performing the action (bowing with humility). This semantic hint is also ignored in translation, and, hence, the force of the Arabic language is not preserved.

The third form of the plural nouns is sujuud which occurs in two verses. The two translations render sujuud as “bowing or prostrating themselves in prayer,” and this is compatible with Ibn Katheer’s explication. Comparing the two forms of the plural nouns sujuud and sujjadan, we see that both have similar meanings, with the exception that the former is limited to one lace, i.e. Al-Kaabah, and the latter can occur anywhere.

Since the Holy Quran is rhythmic in its style, the used rhythm is contextual for a rhetoric purpose to serve a certain meaning in each particular context. The listener can easily sense a meaning of breaking and sequencing in the rhythm of sa ja da unlike the rhythm of sujuud which gives the sense of continuation and length. The rhythm that gives the sense of breaking and sequencing in sa ja da suites the context of victorious people entering a defeated city, while the rhythm that gives the sense of continuation and length suites the context of praying and worshipping. These rhetoric hints are not included in the translations provided.

Both sujuud and saajidiin are translated as those who physically prostrate themselves. Depending on Ibn Katheer’s explication, they should be translated as “those who pray.” In Arabic, this is called “Majaz Mursal”, i.e. free metaphor which means the the relation is partial. Only one part (movement) of the prayer is mentioned (prostration) but the whole prayer is intended. What is meant by sujuud, however, refers to those who pray in the Holy Land, near Al-Kaabah, not those who pray in general. Al-Hilali and Khan (1983) and Ali (1999) mention “In prayer,” but this prayer is supposed to be geographically specific for it to be fully precise and correct. Finally, the forms sujjadanand sujuud differ slightly from the form saajidiin in the level of performing the action (of bowing with humility) since they are exaggeration forms.

4. Discussion

The analysis above shows that the Holy Quran includes words that may seem synonymous at first glance. Of these is the use of similar plural nouns which were found to indicate different meanings and to pose problems for translators to render the intended meaning, particularly into English. The results above show that broken plurals which derive from the same root or singular noun are slightly different in meaning and that such differences are due to morphological patternings in Arabic. As a matter of fact, Arabic pluralization patterns are well-documented, with the broken plural accounting for the vast majority of nouns in the language. The broken plural, or irregular plural (see Sawaie, 2014) is morphologically formed in different ways. Sawaie (2014, p. 347) lists four ways, by which we can form broken plurals, as follows:

1. By internal vowel change in the singular form. For example, كِتابٌ “a book” becomes كُتُبٌ “books” in the plural.

2. By doubling a consonant in the singular noun, in addition to internal vowel change. For example, the plural of طالِبٌ “a student” is طُلاّبٌ “students.” طَلَبَةٌ also exists but may be used less frequently.

3. By using a prefix, usually a hamza plus a fat-Ha أَ, in addition to the internal vowel change. For example, وَلَدٌ “a boy, offspring” becomes أَوْلادٌ “boys, children” and بابٌ “a door” becomes أَبْوابٌ “doors.”

4. By adding the prefix hamza and a suffix, also a hamza, in addition to internal vowel change. For example, the plural of صَديقٌ “a friend” is أَصْدِقاءُ “friends” and قَريبٌ “a relative” is أَقْرِباءُ “relatives.”

This morphological complexity in the formation of broken plurals makes their rendention into English, or other languages, a challenge, especially if the second language does not include broken plurals and/or does not show any nuance in meaning between the different forms of broken plural.

The results of this study show that similar plural nouns in the Holy Quran indicate nuanced meanings that depend on the context of use as well as the morphological formation of the plural. Translators of the Holy Quran either do not consider these nuances in meanings or simply render the closest meaning in English. For the Holy Quran, being a sacred text with meanings that regulate our lives as humans, careful attention on the part of translators should be given to translating these similar plurals into the second language. Otherwise, a huge loss or impreciseness in meaning might cause controversy in understanding the verses of the Holy Quran.

Abdul-Raof (2001) argues that translators of the Holy Quran face many problems in rendering the plural forms into English and that they sometimes are forced to render the plural in the singular or vice versa, given the linguistic conventions of the two languages. For example, he shows that the plural in the source language might sometimes be rendered in the singular in the target language to meet the conventions of the target language. In addition, he demonstrates that such rendentions are inappropriate because these lexemes and structures have “a semantic validity in Qur’anic Arabic and is therefore a Qur’an-specific syntactic feature” (p. 51). He argues that in many cases the selection of the plural in the the source text “has a distinct semantic function from that of the singular” (p. 52). Therefore, such selections should be carefully attended to in order to accommodate them in the target language.

5. Conclusion

Arabic is a semitic language, and its morphology is different from that of English and other languages. It is the language of the Holy Quran, Which has been translated widely in the past century to many different languages. The Quran is a holy scripture; therefore, interpreting it is a very sensitive matter. A translator should pay close attention to every detail, bearing in mind that each letter in the Quran is important and may hold its own indication. Plural nouns constantly appear throughout the verses; some of them are derived from the same triconsonantal root. Should these plural nouns be translated similarly into English? This research attempted to answer this question by looking into three forms of plurals derived from the same singular noun.

It is found that some plurals that seem to derive from the same singular noun are actually plurals of different singulars; yet in most cases they all derive from the same three-root base. This base was defined, and its English equivalent was given. A comparison between two different Arabic-English translations was provided to shed a light on the different approaches adopted in translating these plurals. Some of these translations were acceptable in terms of the equivalent meanings, but at other times, the given translation did not create the same impact as its original in the Arabic context did. Examining two translations of the Holy Qur’an has proved that the original sensitive message or meaning and the force of the language in translating similar plural nouns were not well-preserved in a number of cases. In fact, translators should dig deep in the roots of the words in order to render the meanings of the plurals in the Quran as accurately as possible.

What is even more important for translators is to scrutinize each plural noun, depending on its morphological pattern. They should not take for granted that similar plural nouns are synonymous and should be translated as so. They should be aware of the nuance between similar plurals to provide the slightly-different shades of the meaning in the TL. The study provides implications for translation research and training. As for research, the findings recommend more investigations into the use of similar, though semantically different, structures in the Holy Quran and to critique existing translations and offer alternatives to assist in delivering the intended sacred meaning of the Book. As for training, the study offers insights into how specialized translation courses should be delivered to account these technical and contentious issues, especially in critical texts such as legal and religious texts.

Correction

This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Mohd Nour Al Salem

Mohd Nour Al Salem is Associate Professor of Translation at the University of Jordan. His research has appeared in journals such as System, Ampersand, and Heliyon.

Sharif Alghazo

Sharif Alghazo is Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics in the Department of Foreign Languages at the University of Sharjah and in the Department of English Language and Literature at the University of Jordan. His research has appeared in journals such as System, Journal of Politeness Research, Journal of Pragmatics, European Journal of Applied Linguistics, Sage Open, Ampersand, Heliyon, Interchange, Lingue e Linguaggio, and Open Linguistics and in edited books.

Imran Alrashdan

Imran Alrashdan is Associate Professor of Linguistics in the Department of English Language and Literature at the University of Jordan. His research has appeared in journals such as System, Ampersand, and Heliyon.

Nimer Abusalim

Nimer Abusalim is Associate Professor of Linguistics in the Department of English Language and Literature at the University of Jordan. His research has appeared in journals such as Natural Language & Linguistic Theory, Cogent Arts & Humanities, and Heliyon.

Mohammad Rayyan

Mohammad Rayyan is Associate Professor of Linguistics in the Department of English Language and Literature at the University of Jordan. His research has appeared in journals such as Dirasat, Cogent Arts & Humanities, and Heliyon.