Emerging role of the organization of Islamic cooperation in the global governance since 1969

Abstract

The Role of OIC in Global Governance cannot be ignored by considering it a weak organization on the World stage. Globally, the OIC represents more than 1.8 billion people. As soon as the OIC was founded, it began assisting Muslim nations in their conflict resolution. The OIC became successful at mediating various feuds between Muslims, but it rarely served as an influential organization. It is imperative that all OIC organs, standing committees, and agencies do their part to ensure the stability of Muslim world governance at all levels. This paper argues that the role of OIC in the world politics cannot be ignored because it is the second biggest organization which stretched in four continents of the world. A review of the official websites of the OIC, Standing Committees, and agencies of the OIC was conducted to gather primary data. OIC officials and diplomats from the Muslim World were interviewed.

Keywords:

• Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)
• Muslim World
• Organs of OIC
• Standing Committees
• Islamic Development Bank

1. Introduction

The Organization of Islamic Cooperation began as a weak Muslim organization International Politics, but it eventually climbed to prominence in the Muslim world. Its actions were distinct from those of other established Muslim organizations from the start. As a prominent mediator, the OIC intervened in key Muslim conflicts shortly after its formation. The OIC had some success in its mediation process, but it failed to resolve many traditional Muslim world conflicts. The role of the OIC in Muslim world’s foreign affairs has remained comparable to that of the UN General Assembly. The OIC had produced resolutions on practically every topic confronting Muslims throughout history, but their implementation has been a major challenge for the organization.¹

Following the establishment of the OIC, it was able to effectively settle several disagreements between large nations, such as Pakistan and Bangladesh. Both Pakistan and Bangladesh acceded to proposals from OIC to establish bilateral ties in 1974. In a similar fashion, during the early years of its existence as a Muslim organization, the OIC was actively involved in mediating the dispute between the PLO and Jordan. Both of these episodes demonstrated that the OIC was effective in its role in International Politics (Imam, 2002).

OIC is the organization that attempted to address the world’s most pressing problems, such as the Kashmir conflict, which has become a symbol of inability of international organizations. Kashmir is a mostly Muslim province, and Pakistan is an active member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation; hence, the OIC has begun its efforts to resolve the Kashmir problem. The OIC’s special working committee regularly addresses the Kashmir problem. OIC has previously engaged in the mediation of the Iraq-Iran conflict. The organization did all it could to get the leaders of the warring nations to the bargaining table, but its efforts were unsuccessful.

The OIC has been particularly active in assisting the Muslims of Rohingya in Myanmar, offering financial assistance to victims and raising the matter with the Myanmar government. The OIC has advocated on behalf of Morro Muslims in the Philippines and other Muslims who are minorities in non-Muslim nations. Following the horrific events of 9/11, Muslims in the Western world faced new hurdles in the form of Islamophobia. Muslims have been blamed for every terrorist act wherever in the Globe. Through peaceful measures, the OIC has served its proper role in combating Islamophobia in the Western World.² The OIC and its agencies continue to try to dispel Islamophobia in the minds of people. The OIC has made some real initiatives to combat Islamophobia. The OIC’s official efforts to combat Islamophobia have sent a strong message to the world about authentic Islam.

Over time, the OIC established specialized agencies, standing committees, and agencies for various objectives and specific tasks. Following the strengthening of other institutions, the OIC began focusing on topics like as financial governance, humanitarian activities, education, and research. The OIC broadened its reach by assisting member nations in their growth in several areas of life.³

In a short period of time, the Islamic Development Bank grew to become the largest financial organization in the Muslim world. The IDB became the OIC’s financial powerhouse, initiating several initiatives for the development of OIC member nations. The OIC works for poverty reduction, education and research, and other humanitarian objectives across the Muslim world. The establishment of the IDB as a specialized institution of the OIC has provided a glimmer of hope for the Muslim world’s economic prosperity.⁴

The standing committees were established to increase the efficacy of OIC’s operations. This objective of efficiency was met when the standing committees presented the Organization with their work performance reports. Al Quds Committee, Standing Committee for Information and Cultural Affairs (COMIC), Standing Committee for Economic and Commercial Cooperation (COMCEC), and Standing Committee for Scientific and Technological Cooperation (COMSTECH) assist the Council of Foreign Ministers and Islamic Summits in implementing the resolutions of their respective areas.⁵

Similar to the United Nations, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation has numerous specialized agencies working in their respective fields. These agencies were established in response to the needs and demands of the contemporary world in order to make the OIC a more effective and powerful international organization for Muslims around the globe. Specialized organizations such as the Islamic Development Bank (IDB) have made the OIC’s global financial governance possible. Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ISESCO) is comparable to the United Nations’ UNESCO in both its mission and operations, and it is a significant UNO partner. Islamic Broadcasting Union (IBU) is committed to the growth of broadcasting organizations in OIC nations. The union of News Agencies of the OIC Member States (UNA) is a group of Islamic news agencies working to combat western propaganda about Islam and Muslims. Other organizations, such as the Islamic Committee of the International Crescent (ICIC), collaborate with the International Red Cross to aid war and natural disaster victims. The Science, Technology, and Innovation Organization (STIO) works in the field of science and technology in OIC countries, whereas the Islamic Organization for Food Security focuses on food security in OIC nations. Women Development Organization (WDO) is yet another organization actively working to empower Muslim women worldwide.

Scholars have long criticized the Organization of Islamic Cooperation as a poor international Organisation. Many critiques indicate the organization’s darker side, yet the organization’s bright side is unknown to many in different academic circles of World Politics. Despite the fact that it has played a key role in the Muslim world ever since it was established, the OIC is still seen as a feeble organization on a global scale. Beginning in 1969, the historical role of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and its many organs in the Muslim world is investigated in this paper.

2. Methodology

The qualitative research methodology was used for this study. Many in-depth interviews with Muslim experts and diplomats were undertaken in order to gather personal understanding about the subject. Higher-level officials from the Belt and Road Initiative operating in countries such as Pakistan were visited, and their official archives were checked. For data related to the current study, official working papers, magazines, and press releases from relevant offices such as the China Pakistan Economic Corridor in Pakistan, the Ministerial Standing Committee on Scientific and Technological Cooperation (COMSTEC) office of the OIC in Pakistan, and the Pakistan Foreign Ministry were consulted. Furthermore, various prominent journal papers were used as reference material, and various famous authors in the field were carefully researched to have a thorough understanding of the current study. Trade statistics and other statistical data from the world’s most famous and recognized institutions were accessed via CIA fact books and World Bank records. The key sources for this study were firsthand statements in the electronic and print media by Belt and Road Initiative policymakers, Muslim world specialists, and OIC officials.

3. Historical role of OIC in different issues of Muslims in the world

After beginning as a relatively insignificant organization in the politics of the world, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation eventually began resolving domestic disputes of the OIC. This organization’s initial concentration was on mediating disagreements that arose between Muslim states; but, over time, it shifted its mission to become more proactive in responding to the changing conditions in the Muslim world. In his speech in the United States, His Excellency Hissein Brahim Taha, Secretary General of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, outlined the organization’s priorities to combat violent extremism and terrorism, promote human rights, and empower women, the elderly, children, and people with special needs.⁶ Because neither the OIC nor the General Assembly of the United Nations can put the decisions and agreements into effect, the performance of both of these institutions is identical. The Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) is a supreme authority in the Muslim world that offers guidance, mediation, suggestions, in a democratic and peaceful manner. The Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) cannot compel its member states to move in a particular direction; however, it does its best to encourage such movement through dialogue and other peaceful means (Hashmat, 2011). OIC has played an active role as a mediator throughout history, with a solid track record of mediating international community disputes. The OIC has strong relationships with the United Nations, the European Union, and major World Powers such as the United States, Russia, and the People’s Republic of China. OIC collaborates with the UNO and other UNO agencies on numerous fronts around the Globe. All OIC members have the same status within the organization, which is democratic in one sense but hinders the OIC’s ability to implement its agreements and decisions. The five permanent states of the world have veto power, so the United Nations Security Council can only implement decisions if all five permanent states concur on an issue (Husain, 1997). Iyad Madani the Ex- Secretary-General of the OIC told the TRT Word that OIC has played an active role in the conflicts of Somalia, Central Africa, and Iraq (WORLD, 2016).

3.1. OIC Role in Bangladesh and Pakistan Conflict

During the partition of the Indian Subcontinent, the majority-Muslim regions of the northwest and Bengal became Pakistan, while the remaining regions became India. Prior to the 16th of December 1971, Bangladesh was the eastern region of Pakistan. Immediately after its establishment as a Muslim state in South Asia, Pakistan faced a vast array of challenges. The first decade of Pakistan, from 1947 to 1958, is classified as a period of uncertainty because the country’s constitutional direction was not yet determined. In the early years of its existence, the absence of a constitution was Pakistan’s greatest challenge. Due to the lack of a constitution, Pakistan was unable to integrate all of its constituent units in a systematic manner.⁷ In the first decade of the state’s existence, a constitution was hardly drafted, and it was soon repealed by a military dictator. Bengalis demanded that Bengali be made the official language of Pakistan, as Bengali was the predominant language in the country. The western unit did not consider this demand. The inability of Pakistan’s dictatorship to address the grievances of its eastern unit led to the emergence of a secessionist mindset in Bengal. In addition to numerous other issues, the unequal distribution of wealth and power prompted the people of Bangladesh to demand a separate nation. India, the traditional adversary of Pakistan, endeavoured to exploit Bengal’s grievances and aided Bengal in fighting a civil war against the central government of Pakistan. In December 1971, the eastern region of Pakistan, formerly Bengal, became Bangladesh. After the formation of Bangladesh in 1971, Pakistan and Bangladesh entered a period of verbal animosity (Meher, 2015). Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC) expressed grave concern regarding the East Pakistan civil war of 1971. For a possible settlement with Islamabad, the OIC has decided to send the foreign ministers of several OIC countries along with the Secretary-General to meet with Mujeeb ur Rehman, the Bangladeshi leader in exile in India. India obstructed the entry of OIC leadership because it supported Mujeeb ur Rehman’s secessionist efforts (Khan, 2003).

Bangladesh became an independent Islamic nation on 16 December 1971, prompting the OIC to reconcile its relations with Pakistan as a Muslim nation. India had captured more than 93,000 war prisoners from Bangladesh. OIC attempted to bring the leadership of both countries to the table for a peaceful discussion, but they were unable to do so due to internal pressures from their respective populations. Tengku Abdul Rahman, then-Secretary General of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) from Malaysia, attempted to convene a meeting between the highest leaders of Pakistan and Bangladesh. However, the leadership of Bangladesh refused to meet with his Pakistani counterpart until Pakistan recognized Bangladesh. The leadership of Pakistan was under intense public pressure for refusing to recognize Bangladesh.⁸. The leaders of OIC influenced the then-prime minister of Pakistan, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, to recognize Bangladesh. Mujeeb ur Rehman was also influenced to attend the Lahore Islamic summit. In later years, Mujeeb Rehman visited Lahore, and these two nations established full diplomatic relations (Al-Ahsan, 2004).This is one of the prime achievements of the OIC in the early days after its inception.

3.2. PLO and Jordon

The first conflict witnessed by the OIC as a representative of Muslim nations in the Muslim world was the conflict between the PLO and Jordan in 1970. During the war, PLO had not joined OIC as a separate organization. It was an Israeli force fighting for the liberation of Palestine from Israeli occupation. Jordan was more pragmatic in its dealings with Israel, whereas the PLO employed a radical strategy to provoke Israel at the time. Jordan was regarded as the legitimate political representative of the Palestinian People due to the large number of Palestinian refugees it had taken in.

The establishment of the State of Jordan dates back to the aftermath of World War I, when the British defeated the Ottomans with the assistance of local tribesmen led by Shareef Hussain. Abdullah, the son of Sharif Hussain, was installed as the Amir of Amman with a 5,000-pound grant from the United Kingdom. The British government bolstered Abdullah’s government by assisting in the formation of an army. In 1946, he proclaimed himself king of the region he commanded. He became a puppet in the Imperialist powers’ hands. He supported and facilitated British efforts to establish Israel in the Middle East. In 1948, the Muslim king opposed the establishment of the state of Palestine. In 1949, he declared Jordan to be the Hashemite kingdom in the Middle East. In addition, approximately 500,000 Palestinian refugees fled to Jordan during the 1949 conflicts. A Palestinian Gunman in 1951, assassinated Abdullah because he supported Israel, angering the Palestinians greatly (Al-Ahsan, 2004).

Following the six-day war of Arab Israel in 1967, a significant number of Palestinians sought refuge in Jordan. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) personnel based in Jordan desired to engage in armed resistance against Israel in order to free Palestine from Israeli occupation, but Jordan did not wish to engage in hostilities with Israel. Because Jordan did not permit the PLO to operate from Jordanian territory, a civil war broke out between the PLO and Jordan. The PLO was tied to overthrowing the Jordanian King, Hussain, which was impossible for them to accomplish. In Jordan, the Jordanian Army was successful in destroying the PLO (SEGEV, 2007).

In an effort to mediate the dispute between the PLO and Jordan, members of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), such as Egypt and Saudi Arabia, took the initiative. Egypt and Saudi Arabia were both instrumental in helping to resolve the conflict between the PLO and Jordan. Both parties were given clearly defined roles to play in the politics of Palestine after Jordan expelled the PLO from its territory. Over time, the international community came to recognize the Palestine Liberation Army (PLA) as the sole representative of the Palestinian people as a whole.⁹ Jordon committed herself at the summit meeting of 1974 in rabat to recognize the PLO as the sole legitimate representative of the people of Palestine (Al-Ahsan, 2004, p. 145). Jordon committed herself at the summit meeting of 1974 in rabat to recognize the PLO as the sole legitimate representative of the people of Palestine (Aruri, 1985).

This was an indirect achievement of great significance for the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), which at the time was the newest organization in the world and had taken part in the resolution of such a conflict in a state whose population identified as Muslim. Before the OIC was established, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Egyptian government did not work together in this manner. The formation of the OIC encouraged the Muslim states of the world to resolve the internal issues that were preventing them from being strong enough to deal with the issues that were plaguing the Muslim world from the outside. The Organization of Islamic Cooperation has voiced its gratitude to Egypt and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for their efforts to reconcile two of the organization’s members.¹⁰

3.3. Oic’s role in the Kashmir issue

Kashmir Issue is the oldest and largest problem in the contemporary world and is regarded as the most complex issue in International Politics. This issue has its origins in the 1947 partition of the Indian subcontinent. To favour Pakistan during the partition of the Indian subcontinent, Kashmir’s approximately 80% Muslim majority sought to join it. The Muslim masses of Kashmir did not recognize the Hindu king of Kashmir’s annexation to India because they did not wish to join India. Since 1947, India has been engaged in Kashmir in an effort to alter the mentality of the Kashmiri people and transform them into Indians both mentally and physically. India and Pakistan have fought more than three chaotic wars over Kashmir, but no solution has ever been apparent in the annals of history. Due to their political ideology, the people of Kashmir do not wish to coexist with India. They do not wish to join any country, such as Pakistan or India, but instead desire independence. Pakistan supports the consent of the Kashmiri people, but opposes the annexation of Kashmir by force.¹¹

This platform was used by the Muslims of Kashmir and the people of Pakistan, hence the formation of the OIC became India’s greatest issue. Kashmir problem cannot be resolved by the United Nations Security Council, but the foundation of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) has added to the pressure on India.¹². India always tried to be a member of the OIC but its membership offer was denied because of its issues with Pakistan a leading country in the Muslim world (Al-Ahsan, 2004). After the 1980s, Kashmir became a perennial topic on the OIC summit’s agenda. The OIC foreign ministers created a contact group on Kashmir during the seventh extraordinary session of the OIC foreign ministers, held in Islamabad, Pakistan, in September 1994. This group was established to coordinate the actions of UN member states in support of the right to self-determination of the people of Kashmir and the protection of basic human rights. This group consisted of Turkey, the Republic of Niger, Pakistan, and the Secretary-General of the OIC (Imam, 2002, p. 192).

This contact group meets sporadically at the United Nations headquarters in New York. The primary aim of this contact group is to draft resolutions on the Kashmir problem that expressly support Pakistan’s position on the Kashmir issue for acceptance by the sporadic Foreign Ministers conferences. These resolutions are subsequently supported in the summit meetings of the OIC’s heads, monarchs, and presidents held every four years. In the time after 1994, the OIC started to actively support Pakistan’s position on the Kashmir dispute. India’s officials have responded strongly to Pakistan’s posture in the OIC and to resolutions that support Pakistan’s stance.¹³

From October 7 to 9, 1974, the seventh extraordinary session of the Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers was held in Islamabad. The conference statement reiterated the position made by the OIC summit that the Kashmir issue must be resolved in accordance with UN resolutions. It was determined during the conference to establish the OIC contact group on Jammu and Kashmir at the United Nations in New York. This organization attempted to coordinate the work of member governments in accordance with United Nations resolutions (Singh, 1994). The OIC contact group in New York has been trying hard to get supported by its resolutions on Kashmir. The Ambassador of Pakistan to the United Nations demanded that they have been able to get 6 more supporters including three contact group members like Turkey, Niger, and the kingdom of Saudi Arabia.¹⁴ According to the most recent report of the OIC-IPHRC Fact-Finding Visit to the State of Azad Jammu and Kashmir to Assess Human Rights Situation in the Indian Occupied Kashmir, which was conducted on March 27–29, 2017, the OIC-IPHRC has provided the United Nations with some sound recommendations regarding the plight of the Kashmiri people. The Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) has asked the United Nations to urge the Indian government to stop violating human rights in Indian-occupied Kashmir. The OIC also suggested that the Director General of the World Health Organization (WHO) consider reporting on the health situation of the Indian Occupied Kashmir population.¹⁵

On the occasion of the Foreign Ministers Conference in Islamabad on 23 March 2022, the Secretary-General of the OIC reiterated his steadfast friendship with the people of Occupied Kashmir population. The Secretary General summarized India’s unconstitutional and one-sided activities since 5 August 2019. He stated that resolving the Jammu and Kashmir conflict in accordance with UN Security Council resolutions is critical for long-term stability in South Asia. According to the Secretary-General,

1. Reverse its one-sided and unlawful actions instituted on 5^th august 2019

2. Stop its coercion and human rights defilement against the Kashmiris in Indian Illegitimately controlled Jammu and Kashmir

3. Standstill and reverse efforts to modify the demographic structure and redraw electoral constituencies in Indian Occupied Kashmir.

4. Take tangible and evocative steps for full execution of the UN security council resolutions on Jammu and Kashmir.¹⁶

5. OIC Role in Iraq Iran-War (1980-1988)

The absence of diplomatic connections between Iraq and Iran revived certain ancient disagreements between the two countries, including the Shatt-al-Arab and Khuzestan issues. The battle began on 22 September 1980, and continued until 20 August 1988 (Gassama et al., 1988). After the 1980 confrontation between Iraq and Iran, the OIC began mediating between the two nations. Under the leadership of Pakistan’s then-president, General Zia Ul Haq, a mission of goodwill was organized to bring the two sides to the negotiation table. Yasser Arafat of the Palestine Liberation Organization helped President Zia in his efforts, but they were unsuccessful (Al-Ahsan, 2004).

The mission was reorganized and renamed during the third Islamic Summit Conference, held in Makkah and Taif in January 1981, as the Islamic Peace Committee or Good Offices Committee. Under the leadership of Guinea’s President Ahmad Sekou Toure, this committee was comprised of the previous mission plus a few additional members. On 28 February 1981, the group was sent to the capitals of Iran and Iraq for discussions. On February 28, the peace committee met with Iranian Prime Minister Rajai and President Bani Sadr. Bani Sadr and Ahmad Sekou reviewed the war’s peace possibilities. The President of Iran urged that the peace committee identify the aggressor and devil of this war and punish them, but the OIC committee thought it lacked the authority to punish any nation. The OIC may only engage in peaceful negotiations with the two warring sides; it has no authority to penalize or coerce any nation. (Gassama et al., 1988).

President Sekou Touré died in 1983 and the president of Gambia Dawda led the Islamic Peace Committee. The Summit Conference asked both revelries to finish aggressions and stated that the OIC had decided to formulate an Islamic Emergency force assigned with the task of guaranteeing the Enactment of the armistice.¹⁷ Iran declared the boycott of the Islamic conference because Iran will never sit with the representatives of aggressors like Iraq. Iraq persuaded the Summit Conference that Iran was the only one accountable for the ongoing conflict and it won the approval of the OIC to host the upcoming Foreign Ministers Conference in Baghdad which was seriously objected to by Iran. Despite Objections from Iran the venue of the Foreign Minister’s Conference was held in Baghdad (Al-Ahsan, 2004).

At the Inaugural session of the 12^th Conference of Foreign Ministers meeting in Baghdad in 1981, the statement of the president of Iraq was made the part of official documents of OIC.¹⁸ In this manner, Iran lost faith in the OIC because it saw the organization to be partial toward Iraq. The fact that Iran became a Shia republic in 1979 and that the Arab nations, who are mostly Sunni governments, supported Iraq was a further factor that influenced the OIC’s position in the Iran-Iraq conflict (Al-Ahsan, 2004). Although, the mediation process of OIC in the war between Iran and Iraq could not be successful its efforts in this regard are recognized in the world, particularly in the Islamic world.

3.4. OIC and Rohingya issue

Members of the Rohingya minority were expelled from Myanmar. Numerous Rohingya Muslims have migrated to neighbouring countries, particularly the OIC nations. The Rohingya emigrated to several nations. Over 40,000 of them reside in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, whereas 200,000 reside in Pakistan (Al-Ahsan, 2004). A continuation of the state-supported military crackdown in august 2017 forced more than 720,000 Muslims to cross the border and take refuge in Bangladesh.¹⁹ The OIC member states have played a significant role in covering the living expenses of more than 1.2 million Rohingya refugees in various camps in Bangladesh. OIC member states, such as the United Arab Emirates, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and Qatar, provided Bangladesh with shelters and other necessities for Rohingya refugees and host communities. For the cause of Rohingya Muslims, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and its members raised $2 million and dispersed a substantial quantity of funds.²⁰ The Gambia has submitted over 500 pages of the legal report, 500 pages of annexed materials as well as several videotapes, maps, and statistics, satellite images as evidence.²¹

During the 45th session of the Council of Foreign Ministers (CFM) that was held in Dhaka on 6 May 2018, the Prime Minister of Bangladesh sought support from the OIC member states to conduct the Rohingya case in the Court of Internal Justice with technical assistance and voluntary funds to guarantee the legal rights of Rohingya Muslims. Paragraph 23 of a statement released during the 46th session of Foreign Ministers on 1 March 2019 in Abu Dhabi, UAE, referred to the Rohingya crisis. Resolution no. 4/6 mm, which addressed the plight of minority Muslims in Myanmar, was meticulous in its condemnation of Myanmar’s genocide of Rohingyas.²² The 47th session of the Council of Foreign Ministers, held in Niamey, Niger on November 27–28, 2020, welcomed the decision made by the International Court of Justice in a resolution to prevent further acts of genocide against Rohingya in Myanmar and Bangladesh, and requested the OIC mobilize funds for Gambia’s legal battle against Myanmar.²³

3.5. OIC and Palestine issue

The Muslim world’s collective response to the Palestine issue begins with OIC policies and actions. The issue of Palestine was the impetus for the formation of the OIC, and it has remained the organization’s sole obsession. There are numerous indicators of the OIC’s commitment to the Palestinian cause. More than seven OIC organs and specialized committees are solely concerned with the issue of Jerusalem, while other agencies and organs support the Palestinian cause in various ways. The Palestine issue has remained the top agenda item at all OIC conferences, and Palestine is an ex-officio permanent member of the governing boards of the Islamic States Broadcasting Organization (ISBO), Islamic Heritage Commission (ICPICH), and Organization of Islamic Capitals and Cities (OICC), among others. Even before the Arab League, the OIC recognized the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) as the legitimate representative of Palestine. The OIC provided moral and material support to the Palestinian cause, elevating Yasser Arafat’s status and introducing him as a world leader. In the Modern world, the OIC internationalized the Palestinian issue in a real sense, and it highlighted Middle Eastern issues in the World (S. S. Khan, 2009).

At the first Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers, which took place in Jeddah in the 1970s, Israel was held accountable for the illegal occupation of Arab lands as well as its aggressive behaviour toward Arab lands. The third Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers, which was held in Jeddah once more in 1972, made the decision to establish a support office for the issue of Palestine within the General Secretariat of the Islamic Conference (Mehdi, 1989).

The Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) is the only organization that has ever advocated for Palestine’s cause throughout the course of history, and it continues to do so today. It has been brought up at each and every Summit as well as Ministerial Conference that the OIC has held. Nearly every member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) has expressed both moral and material support for the Palestinian cause. Multiple times throughout history, major and powerful Islamic countries such as Pakistan and Iran have shown their Muslim brothers in Palestine both moral and material support. This support has come in the form of aid. In regards to the matter of Palestine, the OIC has been successful in bringing to the attention of all of its members the fact that Israel is violating International Law.²⁴

3.6. Fight against Islamophobia

Phobia is an extreme form of fear, and Islamophobia is an extreme form of fear that is associated with Muslim militant organizations. These organizations gained much popularity around the world in the aftermath of the incidents of 11 September 2001. After the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001, people in the western world began associating Muslims with the act of terrorism. The use of suicide bombings as a tactic by certain Muslim organizations around the world has further contributed to a negative image of Muslims everywhere. As a result, widespread terror phobia developed in the minds of western people, who also felt a great deal of fear emanating from the peaceful religion of Islam. This contributed to the development of Islamophobia in the minds of people in the West. The truth of the matter is that Islam is a religion that prioritizes peace and therefore had nothing to do with acts of terrorism. Terrorist acts have occurred throughout history, but no one has ever placed the blame on a particular religion for those atrocities. Christian leaders fought in all of the major wars throughout history, which resulted in some of the bloodiest massacres in human history. People have been responsible for genocides throughout history, and a lot has happened in the past, but nobody has ever blamed any religion for everything that has happened in the past. Even though Hitler was a Christian and killed over six million Jews up until the end of World War II, nobody ever accused Christianity of being a religion that promoted terrorism. This is despite the fact that Hitler was a Christian. A small number of terrorist attacks carried out by Muslims cannot establish Islam as the religion of terrorism; rather, it is the individual flaws of those who choose to use terrorist tactics (Naik, n.d..).

Through peaceful measures, the OIC is playing a highly active role in combating Islamophobia in the Western world. The OIC has been tasked with monitoring Islamophobia and reporting its findings to its member nations.²⁵ In conjunction with other international organizations, like the agencies of UNO the OIC takes the necessary measures to prevent Islamophobia. A specialized unit inside the OIC, such as the Islamophobia Observatory, effectively disseminates the accurate picture of Islam.²⁶.

The Ministers of Foreign Affairs and heads of delegation of the member states of the Organization of the Islamic Conference, participating in the annual coordination meeting of the OIC Foreign ministers, which was held in New York on 24 September 2010 under the theme “Combating Islamophobia,” declared that Dialogue among the civilizations is essential for world peace and that peaceful coexistence and intercommunal and interreligious tolerance is the only remedy. The committee supported efforts to promote moderation and tolerance in the international community. The meeting called for a global awareness of the perilous effects of the escalation of Islamophobia on world peace and security and urged the world’s leaders to demonstrate their joint political will to address the issue with all sincerity. They further stated that “We call upon the UN high Commissioner for Human Rights to set up an observatory at her office aimed at monitoring and documenting acts that led to incitement to religious hatred, hostility and violence”.²⁷ The OIC Observatory presents its reports from 2007 onward and until now they have presented more than thirteen Observatory reports on Islamophobia.²⁸ The OIC Observatory presents its reports from 2007 onward and until now they have presented more than thirteen Observatory reports on Islamophobia.²⁹

Dr. Yousef bin Ahmad Al Othaimeen, Secretary General of the United Nations, has requested that the 5th of March be designated as the International Day to Combat Islamophobia. According to the Secretary General, it will prepare the international community to combat anti-Muslim hatred around the world, promoting tolerance and interfaith harmony. The secretary went on to say that Islamophobia has reached dangerous proportions, making abhorrence and intolerance deplorable. These evils must be contained through the international community’s joint efforts of cooperation, solidarity, and dialogue. The OIC is steadfastly committed to contributing to these efforts and is ready to combat violence and terrorism (Journal, 2021).

3.7. OIC role in Yemen -Saudi Arabia Conflict

Insurgents affiliated with the Houthi movement and the government of Yemen, which is Sunni majority, launched Yemen’s Civil War in 2014. In 2015, Shiite rebels known as the Houthis, who have the support of Iran, seized the Presidential Palace, which ultimately led to the resignation of President Hadi. In 2015, a coalition of Gulf states led by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia launched a campaign against the Houthi insurgents that included economic isolation and air strikes, with the support of US intelligence and logistics. The United Nations estimates that 131,000 of the estimated 233,000 deaths that have occurred in Yemen since 2015 are the result of indirect causes such as a lack of access to health services and inadequate food supplies.³⁰

In September 2018, the OIC Contact Group on Yemen convened a consultation alongside the annual coordination conference of the ministers of Foreign Affairs of OIC Member countries at the United Nations headquarters in the United States. The conference was presided over by H.E. Dr. Yousef bin Ahmad Al Othaimeen, Secretary General of the OIC. The meeting reaffirmed its firm commitment to support the Sovereignty, unity, and political independence of President Hadi’s Yemen. The meeting acknowledged the role of Arab coalition states in supporting Yemen’s legitimate leadership, as well as their support for a nonviolent resolution and Yemen’s reconstruction.³¹

It also acknowledged the Saudi-led coalition’s efforts to alleviate Yemen’s humanitarian crisis. The meeting reaffirmed commitment to UN resolutions such as 2201 (2015), which support Yemen’s constitutional legitimacy. The meeting condemned the military activities of the Houthi militias on Yemen’s border and their terrorist attacks on a Saudi oil tanker in the Red Sea on 27 July 2018. It also condemned the Houthi militias’ refusal to increase commercial and humanitarian shipments through the red sea ports as suggested by the United Nations.³²

3.8. OIC and Afghan issue

Since 1979, Afghanistan has served as a battleground for the world’s superpowers. For more than ten years, the United States and the Soviet Union fought a Cold War in Afghanistan. Superpowers of the world, such as the Soviet Union, became Russia after its dismemberment in the fight against Afghanistan in 1992. In early 1979, the Soviet Union intervened in Afghanistan to Sovietise the country, but the entry of the United States into Afghanistan with the support of Pakistan prevented this scheme. In 1992, Russia was severely defeated, and the USSR was divided into 15 states. The US then intervened in Afghanistan to help democratize the country. In the aftermath of 9/11, the United States intervened in Afghanistan to disrupt the terrorist network that was operating from the country. After fighting for more than two decades with the Taliban, Afghanistan’s so-called banned terrorist organization, the US finally made a deal with the Taliban and supported their government. Pakistan supported Afghanistan during her conflict with the Soviet Union, and then Pakistan supported the United States during its humanitarian intervention in Afghanistan. When the Taliban are in power in Afghanistan, Pakistan backs the Afghan government.³³

In response to Dhaka’s request for an extraordinary session of the Foreign Ministers of OIC countries to discuss Afghanistan’s position in the region. The conference was held in Islamabad, Pakistan, from January 27 to 29, 1980. The Foreign Ministers Conference was opened by President Zia Ul Haq. The President of Pakistan declared the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan to be the latest tragedy of the Muslim world in his inaugural address. To meet such challenges, the president called for a collective defence of the Muslim Ummah. He urged the conference to send a clear message to the USSR conveying the Muslim world’s grave concern. He also drew the attention of the OIC ministers to the humanitarian plight of millions of Afghan refugees in Pakistan. The address delivered by President Zia was deemed the official document of the Extraordinary Conference of Foreign Ministers. Mr Habib Chatty, then Secretary General of the OIC, emphasized the deep concern of neighbouring states such as Pakistan and Iran about Afghanistan’s current situation. The OIC’s foreign ministers denounced the Soviet military aggression against the Afghan people. The conference demanded the immediate withdrawal of Soviet troops, and the conference decided to suspend Afghanistan’s membership until the Soviet troops left. Another major demand the conference made of the USSR was that its members consider boycotting the Moscow Olympics in July 1980 unless the Soviet Union withdraws all of its troops from Afghanistan.³⁴

The 17th Extraordinary Session of OIC foreign ministers was held in Islamabad, Pakistan, on 19 December 2021. According to the prime minister of Pakistan, Imran Khan, “forty-one years ago, an extraordinary session of the OIC was held in Pakistan to discuss the situation in Afghanistan,” and now the same session focused on the war-torn country. The prime minister of Pakistan cautioned the international community against ignoring Afghanistan’s man-made financial chaos. The Prime Minister stated that the OIC has a “religious obligation” to assist Afghanistan in this time of crisis (Khan, 2021). Delegates from China, the US, Russia, European Union, and United Nations participated in this grand conference on Afghanistan. It was marked as the biggest conference on Afghanistan since the Taliban seized power from US-led foreign troops (Gul, 2021).

According to a resolution that was passed by OIC in the 17^th extra Ordinary Session the OIC states determined to work with the UN to try to unlock millions of dollars in frozen Afghan assets in a bid to confront its intensifying humanitarian crisis. The Secretary-general of OIC Hissein Brahim Taha maintained that “the OIC has always taken a strong position which supports its member countries […] the joint secretariat calls for the sovereignty, unity and territorial integrity of Afghanistan” (Gul, 2021).

3.9. OIC and Thailand Muslims

In Thailand, Muslims constitute a minority population of around 4 million, with 80 percent residing in southern areas. In 2004, tensions escalated between Muslims and the Thai government in the south, leading to the imposition of martial rule against Muslims. In 2005, the OIC intervened after receiving an offer from the Thai government. Focusing primarily on mediation, the OIC should maximize its diplomatic influence with the Thai government and its standing among the Muslim community. The OIC delegation determined that volatility in the South was neither the product of religious discrimination against Muslims nor inherent to Islam. The real issue in the south was of a political character.³⁵ Prime minister Sarayud Chulanont changed the approach of government to deal with the South and he preferred dialogue and negotiations with the Muslims of the South after coming to government in 2006.³⁶ Th secretary General of OIC visited to Bangkok in 2007 to express his gratitude for the new way of the prime minister’s dealing process with the Muslims of the South.³⁷

3.10. OIC and Somalia

The engagement of the OIC in Somalia helped to an aggressive reaction to the horrific humanitarian situation in the nation. The most sought terrorist group in Somalia depends only on the OIC to supply humanitarian relief, refusing the help and support of other international organizations and forcing others to leave the Shahab area. The Organization of Islamic Cooperation was permitted access to afflicted areas locked off from the rest of the world. OIC endorsed the signing of an MOU with international organizations such as the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the World Food Program (WFP), and the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN-OCHA) to provide help to impacted areas.³⁸

4. The performance of financial governance of OIC

The Islamic Development Bank is a specialized agency of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation that is regarded as the most successful and effective agency among the various organizations and institutions operating under the OIC’s umbrella. The Islamic Development Bank was founded on 20 October 1975, and began operations with a $3.7814 million loan in 1976. Initially, 22 members joined, and in subsequent years, as visible in Figure 1, more Muslim nations joined.

Figure 1. Number of Joining Members in the Islamic Development Bank.

Source: MBJ/mush/29-YEARS-IDB

The IDB is comprised of all members of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation. IDB’s objective is to promote socioeconomic growth and economic cooperation among its member nations.³⁹ IDB’s mission is to accelerate the economic growth and social development of its member states and Muslim communities in non-member countries, both separately and collectively, in accordance with the principles of Islamic law. In pursuit of this objective, the IDB offers a variety of development assistance programs that target various sectors of the economy of member nations. Additionally, it generates and activates unique capitals for specified resolutions.⁴⁰

The IDB Group is a multilateral development institution comprising five entities: the Islamic Development Bank (IDB), Islamic Research and Training Institute (IRTI), Islamic Corporation for the Development of the Private Sector (ICD), International Islamic Trade Finance Corporation (ITFC) and Islamic Corporation for the Development of the Private Sector (ICD).⁴¹ The five entities of IDB are shown in Figure 2 with its date of creation.

Figure 2. Source: Annual Report of OIC 2006.

The IDB Group is engaged in a wide range of specialized and integrated activities like

The resource mobilization activity in the member countries of the OIC and other activities like

• Emergency Relief

• Debt Relief

• Insurance services

• Trade Financing

• Investment

• Public and Private sector Financing

• Information Service

• Research and Training in Islamic Economics and Banking

• Scholarships for Students in member countries and Muslim Communities

The IDB has established specialized funds to address the economic concerns of its members. These funds consist of the Islamic Banks Portfolio for Investment and Development (IBP), the Unit Investment Funds (UIF), the Awqaf Properties Investment Fund (APIF), the World Waqf Foundation (WWF), the Fund for the Reduction of Poverty (FPR), and the Waqf Fund. These monies may be used to alleviate poverty in member nations. Since 1979, IDB’s Special Assistance Programmes have funded 1,129 operations and initiatives totalling $615.35 million. Scholarship Programs are among these initiatives. The Scholarship program has awarded over 7,450 outstanding and needy students from 48 OIC nations with a total of $462 million. Since its founding in 1404 h meaning 1984, it has also invested $13 million on 339 academics, including 187 Ph.Ds. The Islamic Research and Training Institute has produced four different types of research, three seminar proceedings, ten seminars and conferences, 266 training and distance learning courses, and two working groups on poverty. The Islamic Corporation for the Insurance of Investment and Export Credit (ICIEC), the Islamic Corporation for Development of the Private Sector (ICD), and the International Islamic Trade Finance Corporation are further corporations (ITFC). All of these businesses operate in their respective fields.⁴²Figure 3. Shows the participation of OIC members of IDB in different regions of the world.

Figure 3. Participation by percentage from Different Regions.

Source: Source: MBJ/mush/29-YEARS-IDB

Major Achievements of Islamic Development bank

• The IDB group had financed 5272 projects worth $45 billion in different projects from January 1975 to 2007 in the member countries of IDB and for the Muslim minorities all over the world.

• The membership of the Bank grew from 22 in 1975 to 56 in 2007 which is a 155% increase the membership.

• The IDB launched its technical assistance to OIC countries for matters related to WTO in 1997. Activities like Trade policy courses, Seminars, Workshops, and Subject-specific studies after WTO conferences.

• The IDB had been considered as the Zero Risk-weighted Development Bank under the new Basel capital accord issued in June 2014.

• The increase in the total assets of the bank is significant, from 1976 it was $91 million and in 2007 these assets were $358 million.

• The IDB had adopted a long-term Vision 2020 in 2007 with the aim to enable it to respond effectively to various changes from member countries. This vision was implemented through a number of quick-win programs.⁴³

• In 2019 the IDB approved $7.8 billion for 310 development operations in member countries in the Muslim communities. $39.60 million for numerous poverty-lessening projects and the Islamic Research and Training Institute (IRTI) issued 19 publications and delivered 16 training courses in Member countries (SDGs, n.d.).

5. Achievements of standing committees

Al Quds Committee was established in 1975 to monitor the implementation of decisions issued by the organization and other international organizations that care for and serve as mediators with other bodies. This permanent committee’s mission is to execute all decisions pertaining to the Israel-Arab problem, given the basic relationship between the Al-Quds dispute and the war. The Al Quds Committee established the Bayt Mal Al Quds Agency at its fifteenth session in the Kingdom of Morocco in 1995. Since its formation, the AL Quds committee has performed its assigned duties in a highly commensurate way. According to a recent report, the agency has provided about $57 million for the operation of many initiatives (Gehaisheh, 2021).

The standing committee on Information and cultural affairs (COMIAC) monitors the implementation of OIC resolutions across the Muslim world pertaining to information and cultural affairs. This standing committee works for the improvement and growth of the Islamic nations’ information and cultural domains. It also seeks to combat misinformation and unjust measures used against Islam and Muslims worldwide. In addition, it seeks to encourage collaboration between Muslim nations in the fields of culture, communication, and information.⁴⁴

Since 1984, the Standing Committee for Economic and Commercial Cooperation (COMCEC) has held its meetings at the ministerial level in Istanbul, Turkey. At the annual conference of the COMCEC, various commercial and economic concerns of the member nations are addressed, as well as possible avenues of collaboration between the member states. The major concerns of the summit include intra-OIC trade and investment, as well as collaboration between important economic and policy institutions such as stock exchanges and central banks. The ministers of commerce and economics of OIC member states share their perspectives on subjects pertinent to economic growth in OIC nations.⁴⁵COMCEC is aimed to address the economic challenges of the Muslims Ummah to contribute to the development exertions of the member countries (S. S. Khan, 2009, p. 110). It offers a venue for Muslims to address worldwide economic problems that have the potential to develop economic connections between member nations. It leads all OIC topics pertaining to economic affairs.⁴⁶

Since 1981, the Standing Committee for Scientific and Technical Cooperation (COMSTECH) has been based in Islamabad, Pakistan, focusing on development and technical Cooperation. It aims to monitor the execution of OIC decisions pertaining to scientific and technological cooperation and to bolster the science and technology basis in OIC nations. Through grants, training courses, institution construction, travel assistance, research funding, and the promotion of inter-Islamic networks, COMSTECH strives to realize its objectives. COMSTECH developed in 2006 a training facility similar to Science, Technology, and Policy Research.⁴⁷

In 2006, COMSTECH initiated a program of training workshops. Under this initiative, 78 courses in science and technology were offered, and 2,635 trainees from 32 OIC member nations were taught. As resource individuals, more than 716 specialists, including 247 from overseas, gave their time. In addition to seminars and training courses, COMSTECH conducted three international conferences at which 80 Pakistani and 22 foreign speakers spoke. COMSTECH distributed $50330 in travel grants to researchers from various OIC nations. This committee has released profiles of the OIC’s industrial, food and agricultural, health and medical, mineral, and other sectors. It published monographs on the energy policies of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, climate change, the World Trade Organization, and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, Bioinformatics, and model Biosafety rules. It has also produced World Islamic Calendar, Strategy for the Development of S&T in Islamic Countries, Scientific Research in OIC, and Scientists and Engineers of OIC. Additionally, it has developed a 16-volume Directory of Active Scientists in OIC nations.⁴⁸

6. Functions and role of OIC agencies

There are many agencies of the OIC and each agency plays its respective role in her own domain. The functions of different agencies in the OIC are described in Table 1.

Table 1. Major Role of Agencies

	Agency Name	Major Role
1	Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ISESCO)	It assists member nations enhance their scientific, educational, technical, and cultural sectors. The activity of this institution is comparable to that of UNESCO, which is the United Nations Organization’s agency. ISESCO maintains close ties with UNESCO and other important United Nations Organization institutions. Because Arabic is the language of Islamic traditions and the Holy Quran, it focuses on teaching Arabic to non-Arabic-speaking communities around the globe. The organization assists member institutions in research, innovation, science, culture, and communications.^49
2	Islamic Broadcasting Union (IBU)	It consists of broadcasting groups from Muslim-majority nations. This Union is trying to develop the Islamic world’s broadcasting institutions. Due to the absence of democracy and effective government in the majority of Muslim nations, there are no reputable broadcasting companies.^50
3	Union of News Agencies of the OIC Member States (UNA)	It develops better and closer relations between OIC countries in the field. This agency is also aimed to promote contacts and technical cooperation between news agencies and member states. A better understanding of Muslims and their political and socio-economic problems. It also serves the causes of the Muslim countries by providing information on their advancement and attainments and by explaining their stand to world public opinion.^51 UNA is also working on the promotion of contacts and technical cooperation between the news agencies of the OIC countries.^52
4	Islamic Committee of the International Crescent (ICIC)	It provides relief assistance in case of a disaster in the member countries or the Muslim minority populations living in any non-muslim country. The ICIC has historically helped many regions of Muslims in times of disasters caused by floods and earthquakes. It also provides care and services to the victims of armed conflicts and taking peaceful initiatives in such conditions helps in Gaza and its help for Rohingya Muslims is a great example of such a help. This agency has made very good relations with the international organizations which are working in those areas like Red Cross and Red Crescent.^53
5	The Islamic Organisation for Food Security (IOFS)	It is a specialized institution of the OIC which provide expertise and technical know-how to member states on the various aspects of sustainable agriculture, rural development, food security, and biotechnology (ICECS, 2020).
6	Women Development Organization (WDO)	OIC Women Development Organization (WDO) is working to be a qualitative breakthrough that achieves the aspirations of all women folk in the OIC countries irrespective of their situations (Al-Othaimeen, 2021).

7. Conclusion

The function of the OIC in the Islamic world is comparable to that of the United Nations in the rest of the Globe. The United Nations is in charge of Global Governance in 193 nations, but the Organization of Islamic Cooperation is in charge of global governance in 57 Muslim countries scattered over four continents. The OIC is the world’s second largest organization, and every member of the OIC is a member of the UN. The OIC has played many roles throughout Muslim history. It has served as an arbitrator in confrontations between Muslim nations. It has interfered in the affairs of non-Muslim countries when those countries attacked Muslim minority. The OIC has also performed a humanitarian role in several places across the globe, and it serves as a vital development agent in OIC countries. Initially, the OIC served as a mediator, but it eventually began to work for the cause of humanitarian concerns, etc. (S. S. Husain, 1997).

The OIC has played an exceptional role in mediating between Pakistan and Bangladesh, in the problem of Afghanistan, in the subject of the Iraq-Iran conflict, in the issue of Kashmir, and in the matter of the Palestinian Liberation Organization and Jordan. The Organization has worked on the subject of Rohingya Muslims, and Somali Muslims. In each of these incidents, the OIC made a successful effort to intervene. If an international body intervenes in an issue as an organization in international affairs, it is not essential to produce significant results since it is dependent on the parties in dispute. International Organizations do not have the authority to enforce agreements and worldwide law in the international community. In this sense, we might claim that an international organization’s engagement in a specific problem is an accomplishment in and of itself. In this manner, the OIC has the honour of intervening in key Muslim global concerns such as the Kashmir dispute, the Palestine issue, and other issues affecting Muslims worldwide (Sharqieh, 2012). The OIC’s major financial source is its specialized entities, such as the Islamic Development Bank, which has 888 billion dollars. The Islamic Development Bank is working on many initiatives and strategies to help the OIC’s underprivileged states across the globe.⁵⁴

The OIC Standing Committees are working in several areas to make the OIC more efficient in its engagement in world governance. Each OIC Standing Committee has its own jurisdiction in which to function. Standing Committees are tasked for putting Islamic Summit and Council of Foreign Ministers decisions into action. The Standing Committees are in charge of enforcing the resolutions, although they have no authority to do so. They carry out their responsibilities in order to peacefully execute the decisions of the Islamic Summits and the Council of Foreign Ministers. Each OIC Standing Committee works effectively in its jurisdiction.

Many specialized organizations, such as the United Nations Organization’s other international agencies, are active in their particular fields. The OIC agencies were not active in the early years of the organization, but they began functioning in a very effective way during the second decade of the OIC’s creation. Each OIC agency is trying to fulfill its mission, and to that end, these agencies are collaborating extensively with UNO agencies as well as other agencies and international organizations.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Tajwar Ali

Tajwar Ali is PhD candidate in the School of History Zhengzhou University Henan Province PR China. He obtained his Master’s degree from Islamic University Islamabad.

Notes

1. OIC, OIC Journal January- April 2021, issue 46.

2. Pervaz, Bukhtawer, and Tahama Asad. “Muslims” Coherent Strategy Against the Rise of Islamophobia in France.” Islamophobia Studies Journal 7, no. 1 (2022): 56–65. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48676236.

3. https://www.oic-oci.org/page/?p_id=65&p_ref=34&lan=en

4. https://www.isdb.org/.

5. https://www.oic-oci.org/page/?p_id=65&p_ref=34&lan=en

6. Launch of Inaugural OIC-US Strategic Dialogue. Date: 23/05/2022, https://www.oic-oci.org/topic/?t_id = 35941&t_ref = 24686&lan=en

7. Stanley Maron, “The Problem of East Pakistan” Pacific Affairs, Vol. 28, No. 2 (Jun., 1955), pp. 132–144.

8. Interview with a senior Official from the ministry of Foreign Affairs Islamabad Pakistan, Islamabad, March 2, 2022.

9. Abdullah al-Ahsan, “Conflict among Muslim Nations: Role of the OIC in Conflict Resolution” p150.

10. OIC Resolution 1/3.

11. REPORT OF THE OIC-IPHRC FACT FINDING VISIT TO THE STATE OF AZAD JAMMU AND KASHMIR TO ASSESS HUMAN RIGHTS SITUATION IN THE INDIAN OCCUPIED KASHMIR http://www.kmsnews.org/news/27–29 March 2017.

12. Interview with a senior Official from the ministry of Foreign Affairs Islamabad Pakistan, Islamabad, March 2, 2022.

13. Ibid.

14. Ibid.

15. REPORT OF THE OIC-IPHRC FACT FINDING VISIT TO THE STATE OF AZAD JAMMU AND KASHMIR TO ASSESS HUMAN RIGHTS SITUATION IN THE INDIAN OCCUPIED KASHMIR 29 March 2017.

16. Hissein Brahim Taha, The Secretary General of OIC Speech on the 48^th Foreign Ministers Conference held in Islamabad Pakistan on 23 March 2022.

17. OIC Resolution 6/3-P (IS).

18. OIC Final Communique of the 12th Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers, Baghdad, Republic of Iraq, 28 Rajab-3 Shaban 1401,1–5 June 1981. Annexv, lCFM/12–81/FC/1.

19. “Why Rohingya refugees shouldn’t be sent back to Myanmar”, Amnesty International, 15 Nov. 2018, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/11/why-rohingya-refugees-shouldnt-be-sent-back-to-myanmar/ (Accessed Dec 9, 2021).

20. “OIC draws $1.2 m for Gambia to run Rohingya genocide case,” Dhaka Tribune.

21. “OIC draws $1.2 m for Gambia to run Rohingya genocide case,” Dhaka Tribune, December 6, 2020,https://www.dhakatribune.com/world/2020/12/06/oic-draws-1-2m-for-gambia-to-run-rohingya-genocide-case (Accessed July 11, 2021).

22. OIC/46-CFM/2019/REPORT/FINAL, Report of the 46th Session of the Council of Foreign Ministers (CFM), (Session: 50 Years of Islamic Cooperation: Roadmap for Prosperity and Development) Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.

23. Ibid.

24. Resolution Adopted by The Virtual Open-Ended Extraordinary Meeting of The OIC Executive Committee at The Level of Foreign Ministers to Discuss The Aggression by Israel, The Occupying Power, in The Palestinian Territories, in Particular, Al-Quds Al-Shareef (East Jerusalem).

25. Interview with a senior Official from the Standing Committee of OIC for Science and Technology Islamabad Pakistan (COMSTECH) May,2022.

26. Islamophobia, https://www.oic-oci.org/page/?p_id=182&p_ref=61&lan=en

27. OIC/ACM-2010/ISLAMOPHOBIE-DEC Declaration by the Annual Coordination Meeting of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of OIC Member States on Countering Islamophobia UN Headquarters, New York 24 September 2010.

28. OIC/ACM-2010/ISLAMOPHOBIE-DEC Declaration by the Annual Coordination Meeting of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of OIC Member States on Countering Islamophobia UN Headquarters, New York 24 September 2010.

29. Islamophobia, https://www.oic-oci.org/page/?p_id = 182&p_ref = 61&lan=en.

30. UN high Commissioner for Refugees, April 30, 2018.

31. REPORT OF THE MEETING OF THE CONTACT GROUP ON THE SITUATION IN YEMEN UNITED NATIONS GENERAL SECRETARIAT, NEW YORK 27 SEPTEMBER 2018, OIC/ACM-2018/YEMEN/REP ANNEXE-VI.

32. Ibid.

33. Weinbaum, Marvin G. “Pakistan and Afghanistan: The Strategic Relationship.” Asian Survey 31, no. 6 (1991): 496–511. https://doi.org/10.2307/2645079.

34. RESOLUTION No. 1/EOS THE SOVIET MILITARY INTERVENTION IN AFGHANISTAN AND ON ITS ENSUING EFFECTS.

35. Bangkok Post. (2005). “Bid to Keep South Of the OIC Agenda.”.

36. Imtiyaz Yusuf, (2010). The Role of the Chularajmontri (Shaykh al-IslOEm) in Resolving Ethno-religious Conflict in Southern Thailand. American Journal of Islam and Society, 27(1), 31–53. https://doi.org/10.35632/ajis.v27i1.355.

37. “Muslims Should Behave and Have Equal Rights, Says OIC”, The Nation, 2 May 2007, available online at: http://www.nationmultimedia.com.

38. OIC-UN (Organization of Islamic Cooperation Permanent Observer Mission to the United Nations in New York) 2008. “The OIC’s Humanitarian Activities in Somalia.” 2012.

39. Interview with a senior Official from the Dubai Islamic Bank Islamabad Pakistan, Mar,2022.

40. Islamic Development Bank Group in brief, May 2007, https://www.isdb.org/publications?page=40.

41. Ibid.

42. Ibid.

43. Ibid.

44. https://www.oic-oci.org/page/?p_id=172&p_ref=58&lan=en#ALQUDS%20COMMITTEE

45. https://www.sesric.org/activities-comcec.php.

46. https://www.comcec.org/history/.

47. Interview with Dr Muhammad Iqbal Choudhary Coordinator General of Standing Committee of OIC for Science and Technology Islamabad Pakistan (COMSTECH) May,2022.

48. COMSTECH Contribution to STI Capacity Building, Networking & Policy Initiatives for OIC Member States Compiled by: M. Qasim Jan Ikram Abbasi Ahmad Waseem Ashraf March 2020, https://www.comstech.org/comstech-in-brief

49. Charter and Statutes of the Islamic World Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizationhttps://www.icesco.org/en/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2020/01/charter-statutes.pdf.

50. https://ibuj.org/en/node/1219.

51. https://uia.org/s/or/en/1100041138.

52. https://www.oic-oci.org/page/?p_id=65&p_ref=34&lan=en

53. http://icic-oic.org/en/functions.htm.

54. https://www.isdb.org/.