Acceptance of Javanese Karawitan in Japan: Appreciation of traditional culture and community activities

Abstract

Japanese society has established ways of preserving ancestral traditions and the learning of traditional arts. The gamelan is a traditional musical instrument used in Java and Bali; in Java, gamelan music is also known as karawitan. Karawitan has two classifications: klenengan [purely instrumental music] and gendhing [music and vocal tradition]. Through their efforts to appreciate traditional values, karawitan players can transform their plays through gendhing. This study argues that the dissemination of Javanese karawitan to foreign countries, including Japan, was influenced by the presence of pioneering figures, the existence of communities accommodated to karawitan groups, and activities that popularised this traditional Javanese art to wider audiences and supporting communities. This study used as primary sources karawitan community activities in Japan on Facebook, blogs, and YouTube. The study considers the values germinated by karawitan players in Japan from their motivations. Further, the karawitan community not only places traditional music as a musical practice, but also as a means to contemplate. This study complements existing studies on karawitan in foreign countries by describing how traditional arts entered Japan, and why and how karawitan developed through gamelan ensembles.

Keywords:

• Javanese Karawitan
• traditional arts
• community activities
• Japanese society
• gendhing
• Javanese music

1. Introduction

Globalisation is often seen as an external force that threatens the survival of traditional arts, both in reducing support of society and making it homogeneous, while heterogeneity is one of the attractions of art (Smiers, 2009; Soedarsono, 2002). However, globalisation actually opens up space for traditional arts and culture to develop outside their original territory. As Roland Robertson states, globalisation is an open and dialectical process; thus, there will always be rooms not only for “universalization of particularism”, but also for “the particularization of particularism” (Osterhammel & Petersson, 2005). International recognition of wayang, the Javanese puppet shadow play as one of the world’s legacies has proven that traditional art lives and develops in the global arena (Cohen, 2014). Wayang has existed since prehistoric times, the oldest wayang kulit show being wayang kulit purwa which originated from the epics of the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Purwa means beginning, after which the terms ‘wayang madya [madya means middle] and “wayang wasana” (wasana means end or closing) are known. These three are distinguished based on the story’s development. Wayang Madya is a transition from purwa to wasana and one of its stories is about Angling Darma (Brandon, 1974, 42–44).

Karawitan is another traditional Javanese art that has also gone global. It is an important component of traditional performing arts such as dance and wayang puppet shows (Sutton, 2009, p. 303). Gamelan music and karawitan are distinguished from Western music. Gamelan refers to a set of instruments. Most gamelan consists of instruments, such as plates and gongs with special pitch settings (Spiller, 2009, 31–52). The type of gamelan most frequently used in Central Java today is a large set, ranging from thundering gongs to slab instruments, with three kendhang [drums] and several bamboo flutes, sitar, and xylophones. It is tuned using a two-scale system: slendro or a five tone-system and pelog or a seven-tone system. Gamelan music with slendro almost has the same distance and is usually denoted by the numbers 1 (ji/siji/one), 2 (ro/loro/two), 3 (lu/telu/three), 5 (ma/lima/five), and 6 (nem/enem/six). Pélog, the seven-tone system, consists of major and minor intervals, usually denoted as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 (pi/pitu/seven). Both slendro and pelog are usually played in separate sets that cannot be imitated by Western systems (Perlman, 2004, xv).

The Dutch elite conceptualized Karawitan as part of highly artistic culture (adi luhung)in Java during the colonial period. They facilitated an aesthetic approach to music appreciation and generated scholarly interest. Western scholars have begun to study Javanese Karawitan, especially in terms of its musical structure. Foreign researchers continue to study the musicological aspect rather than the anthropological facet of gamelan. In subsequent developments, the Javanese karawitan began to gain recognition abroad, and learning centres were established for it, both in universities, cultural preservation institutions, and independent groups (Tenzer, 1997).

Javanese karawitan has spread to other countries, such as the Netherlands, the United States, England, Australia, and New Zealand. In the Netherlands, the Javanese karawitan has been known since the 19th century through concerts and performances (Cohen, 2014). In the first half of the 20th century in the Netherlands, there was even a Javanese karawitan ensemble called “Babar Layar” which was founded in 1941, with all its members being white youths (Mendonca, 2011, 56–87). During the same period, Javanese karawitan began to develop in the United States. Since the 1950s, karawitan has become one of the main subjects in ethnomusicology programs. Mantle Hood played an important role in the development of karawitan in the United States. He stated that karawitan is the ideal choice for him to apply to the concept of “bi-musicality” that he developed (Hood, 1960, pp. 55–59). With subsequent developments, Javanese gamelan music became known in England. As stated by House (2019), Neil Sorrel introduced karawitan through the University of York, and through the karawitan ensemble, he founded Sekar Petak (House, 1995)

Besides Europe and the United States, Karawitan also spread to Australia and New Zealand (Mrazek, 2005, 492–494). Under the control of the Dutch colonial government, Javanese gamelan instruments were produced by Pontjopangrawit, a pengrawit (karawitan player) from Surakarta who was exiled to Digul Land on charges of being a communist, and thus it was called Gamelan Digul. When Japan occupied Indonesia, Digulists and gamelan instruments were brought to Australia where gamelan first arrived with Javanese gamelan. This traditional Javanese art continued to develop after it became a subject at several universities in the 1970s (Kartomi, 2005). Regarding Javanese karawitan in New Zealand, Johnson (2008, pp. 54–84) examines it with a focus on musical composition. Karawitan groups in New Zealand play the two types of compositions. The first is music from gamelan, which refers to the playing of original musical compositions. The second is music for gamelan, which involves creating new musical compositions to be played with gamelan instruments. Therefore, the global acceptance of Javanese gamelan music, especially by people from different cultural backgrounds, should be examined. Interestingly, gamelan also developed among people with a strong affection for their culture. One of them is the Japanese, who also uphold their traditional culture. Considering these facts, this article discusses Japanese society’s acceptance of karawitan (Suryohadiprojo, 1982). Soerjodiningrat (1985) conducted a pilot study on traditional Javanese art in Japan, although it did not specifically discuss karawitan. It is expected that this research will complement existing studies on Javanese karawitan in foreign countries by describing the process of the entry of traditional arts in Japan and why and how Javanese karawitan then developed, as marked by, among others, the establishment of gamelan ensembles. This study presents the argument that that the dissemination of Javanese karawitan to foreign countries, including Japan, was influenced by pioneering figures, communities accommodated to karawitan groups, and activities that popularised this traditional Javanese art to wider audiences and supporting communities.

Interestingly, the study of traditional Javanese performing arts, especially karawitan, in foreign countries is driven by questions about the background to their spread outside Indonesia, Mendonca (2002) studied the development of Javanese karawitan in England. She described the motivations and musical tendencies of local artists (from England) who pursue karawitan. There are many reasons for the dissemination of karawitan. Mendonca’s study is important because it places the traditional performing arts represented by karawitan in regional and international networks, both from historical and contemporary perspectives.

Another study of Mendonça (2010) focused on a social project, namely Good Vibration, an educational project for prisoners featuring gamelan instruments. Since 2003, the project has been expanded to prisons in England and Scotland. Mendonca analysed the reasons for the success of Good Vibration in controlling prisoners’ emotions and restoring their confidence. It was represented in regular training activities and workshops involving many parties from the community to the government. Gamelan instrument teachers focus on building prisoners’ self-confidence and social skills to allow them to work in teams and develop good communication skills. Medonca’s studies have explained the acceptance of karawitan among Western people (especially the Netherlands and England) (Mendonça, 2010, 369–394).

In the context of the acceptance of Javanese karawitan in Japan, Straubhaar’s (2007) cultural homogenisation approach should be discussed. Straubhaar argues that instead of homogenisation, the effect of cultural globalisation is not only in the rejection of a new culture or loss of identity but also in the contradiction between continuity and change. This approach reflects the optimism expressed by traditional Javanese performing arts in Japan that the world is not as homogeneous as one might fear (Cooper-Chen, 2012). Moreover, globalisation in this digital age has removed time and location boundaries. Cultures globally cross over each other. Globalisation encourages the emergence of a new culture, especially a local one, which is seen as more dynamic. It continues to transform and seek new dialectics within global culture (Putri, 2016). In this case, the local culture benefits more because it has a greater opportunity to develop itself without the fear of losing its identity.

It is interesting to identify the acceptance of karawitan among the Japanese people, because in the context of traditional performing arts, Japan has already established a learning system. Some Western scholars have researched Hawaii music in Japan, especially how culture being taught there cannot be separated from the iemoto system, the Japanese arts education system, which is mentioned in detail, later. In the context of learning Javanese gamelan, the iemoto system in Japanese universities is such that financial support is not provided to bring in Javanese karawitan teachers from Indonesia (Kawaguchi, 2010). Using this as a starting point, this study also focuses on how Javanese karawitan groups in Japan learn Javanese gamelan and what the meaning of Javanese karawitan is for them to show the Japanese people’s acceptance for it. Japanese people who accept karawitan do not represent the whole society, but they belong to musical communities that study karawitan initiated by universities, cultural institutions, or individuals.

In the second section, this article describes methods and materials used to address research problems. The third section explains the background of Japanese society which already has a well-established art education system called iemoto. It is very important to reveal the cultural background of Japanese society and how they perceive traditional performing arts so that they can adapt to learning karawitan music compositions independently. The fourth section discusses the Japanese historical experience of using art as a propaganda medium during their occupation era, including when Indonesia was under their occupation. This fact can be learned from the development of karawitan in Japan, since it was known by the Japanese people who transformed into groups. The Japanese military used Javanese performing arts as propaganda tools when they occupied Java. Those who became propaganda agents included dhalang, karawitan players, and dancers. The fifth section discusses the development of Javanese karawitan in Japan. This section is divided into two subsections which describe the mission of karawitan group activities in socialising traditional culture and the public recognition of karawitan in Japan. The study ends with a conclusion section.

2. Method

This study applied a qualitative method to emphasise the in-depth observation of community activities, interviews, and literature studies. Further, this study also used the historical method of collecting sources to explain connectedness between Javanese and Japanese traditional cultures. The primary sources are the records of the activities of karawitan communities on Facebook and blogs. To explore Japanese people’s appreciation of Javanese karawitan, observations and interpretations of community activities and the impressions of Japanese people in the form of their social media posts and comments were captured from Dharma Budaya [ダルマ･ブダヤ] and Otokoba [音工場]. Besides social media, their past blogs, such as in the blogs of Lambangsari [ランバンサリ的日々] and Gamelan Margasari [ガムラン マルガサリ],have been analysed. To explore how Javanese karawitan has been taught in Japan, correspondences were conducted via WhatsApp with a Japanese gamelan player, teacher, and music producer, Kumi Masuda, who has experience in karawitan in Japan as both a student and teacher. We also made correspondence with Ananto Wicaksono, an Indonesian artist who developed Wayang Kancil in Japan.

3. Japanese cultural background: a brief story of the system of teaching traditional performing arts

In the context of learning arts, especially traditional performing arts, Japan already has a well-established system, namely, iemoto. Olafsson (2007, v) has identified the artistic activities of the Japanese people using the “psycho-cultural” approach. He found that iemoto has permeated all levels of Japanese society in such a way that it has become a standard measure for learning performing arts. Literally, iemoto means the president, chief executive officer, or grand master of an organisation. However, as a system, iemoto resembles apprenticeship. Apprentices do activities such as learning performing arts (routine exercises and rehearsals), stage management, financing, and career promotion. They form groups with structures similar to those of a pyramid. The one with the highest rank in the organizational structure after iemoto is natori, the most gifted pupil authorised to teach fellow pupils (Olafsson, 2007, v).

Kamakura describes iemoto as a “family-like group” that forms a school consisting of an iemoto or grand master and several students. The iemoto system refers to the hierarchical relationship between teachers and students. As a system, iemoto has exhibited the characteristics of an artistic society in Japan being structured on the principles adopted in the country. Iemoto system can be found in a variety of art studies, including classics, popular sports, and martial arts. The enforced ranking system causes stiff competition, resulting in some students failing to enter top ranks (Pecore, 1994, p. 15).

The iemoto system has existed since the Nara period (710–784), whereas natori existed in the middle of the Edo period (the 18^th to early 19^th centuries). In its development, iemoto continued to evolve and was combined with moral values based on religious beliefs such as the teachings of Confucius, emphasis on Buddhism, the patriarchal line in the transmission of traditions, and the Shinto view of ancestor worship. Supported by these values, the iemoto system continued to survive and even had a wider scope for various genres of performing arts (Waseda, 2008).

However, this system has drawbacks, such as students’ dependence on a teacher or master. In the case of koto, while teaching, teachers face their students who use audio and visual recordings. The learning process takes a long time because, at a time, only one part is repeatedly taught until students can imitate it. Having realized that the students have mastered koto, teachers switch to a shamisen musical instrument (Olafsson, 2007, p. 29). Thus, traditional Japanese music is generally transmitted by imitating teachers.

A printed notation system reduces students’ dependence on teachers and allows them to learn independently. Since the 20th century, Japanese people have been able to learn traditional music from their homes. Further, they have begun to learn from recordings, and there is no longer a secret repertoire that can only be obtained from their teachers because everything has been recorded (Yamada, 2017, 28–57).

This shows that the community already has a sophisticated arts education system and upholds indigenous culture and traditions. In 1952, Japan regained full sovereignty, leading to political and social upheavals. Moreover, this period was preceded by the American Occupation, which made a massive effort to bring about cultural change. This also allowed various forms of external performing arts to enter Japan, including traditional performing arts from Indonesia, namely the Javanese gamelan.

4. Art as a media propagandas: the early interactions among Japanese and the Javanese performing arts

This section discusses the historical context of Japanese people’s encounter with Javanese karawitan. Cultural contact between Japan and Indonesia existed during the Dutch colonial period, which later became a propaganda medium when Japan occupied Indonesia in 1942. The discussion on the cultural contacts between the Japanese with Javanese cannot be separated from the Japanese government’s interest in the Meiji period in research on Japanese culture. In this period, research centres were established and became an integral part of university curricula. In this context, research has expanded to sociology, ethnology, and musicology (Robertson, 1995). Based on its mission of strengthening Asian identity, Japan began conducting research on Asian cultures in the 1930s. Based on his research on Chinese, Korean, Indonesian, Malaysian, Burmese, and Thai music, Tanabe Hisao published a monograph titled Music of the Greater East-Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere (Steele, 2012). The book is one of the products of Japanese imperialism which favours Southeast Asian cultures with the aim of degrading European culture. Tanabe also discussed a song in which the gamelan instrument was used.

Korasawa also conducted research and spent approximately five months conducting expeditions in various Southeast Asian regions, including Taiwan, Vietnam, Thailand, and Malaysia. Korasawa stopped at Java for a long time to watch the wayang kulit purwa show and karawitan. The results of Korasawa’s research demonstrate high admiration and respect for Javanese culture. Korasawa opined that if Japan wanted to dominate Indonesia, it did not need to force Indonesians, especially Javanese, to adopt Japanese traditions. Rather, Japan must explore Javanese culture through research on artistic performances and bring Javanese culture to the country. This mission was undertaken by Takarazuka Opera Group, which incorporated gamelan elements into its performances (Yamanashi, 2012, p. 55).

Indonesia has ties with Japan because of the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, including Java. As part of its policies, the Japanese military government attempted to “understand people’s minds” (minshin ha’aku), i.e., the minds of the Javanese people. Through this effort to “spread and tame”, the Japanese military government could mobilise masses and change their mentality at the same time. One of the steps taken was to launch propaganda to indoctrinate the public and make them partners in the Greater East Asia Brotherhood Movement (Mudd, 2005, p. 22).

In an interesting study on propaganda, Thomson explained how graphic imagery such as that found in art, coins, and architecture can be used as a propaganda medium. Thomson conducted an analysis based on direct observation. First, he examined the number of media outlets or works in question. Second, he analysed the psychological effects in the form of acceptance by certain audiences. Finally, he observed the quantitative criteria for wide and persuasive transmission of messages in question. Using the third method, Thomson sought to measure the cultural impact of a particular medium so that he could gain a clearer understanding of past societal trends. Thomson’s research focused on the role and function of propaganda art during major social movements that had existed in China since 1949. He analysed the relationship between social movements and literary life of that period, and the homogenisation of artists by political control. Nevertheless, Thomson focused more on propaganda posters than on the literature. The results show that apart from absorbing cheaper production costs, propaganda posters do not require the audience to be literate. Therefore, propaganda posters are spread everywhere and were influential and effective. The target audience always determines the selection of propaganda media. The Japanese chose a variety of performing arts as propaganda media because people in rural Java accept these media. Propaganda spread through various media, including the performing arts, has various functions and serves different interests (Thomson, 1971, 43–52).

During the Japanese occupation of the East Indies (now Indonesia), the first thing the Japanese did was promote their propaganda. The military government’s main concern was how to extend its propaganda network to all parts of the Javanese urban and rural life. From the beginning of the occupation, Japanese propaganda staff members were sent to the main cities in Java (Jakarta, Bandung, Yogyakarta, Semarang, and Surabaya) to perform propaganda activities. Further, Japan placed propaganda experts in an independent department called Sendenbu. Most propagandists who joined Sendenbu had previously served in China. Further, the military government appointed indigenous people from various regions and professions to participate in propaganda activities. These were accepted as Sendenbu staff after going through several stages of selection, which also filtered out their political orientation. These propagandists must also be people who could easily influence others, such as teachers, religious leaders, local leaders, and artists such as puppeteers, musicians, and dancers (Kurasawa, 1987).

Propaganda media included newspapers, pamphlets, books, posters, photographs, broadcasting channels, exhibitions, speeches, dramas, traditional art performances, paper pictures (kamishibai), music, and films. One of the striking characteristics of Japanese propaganda was the use of media, especially media that appealed to the auditory and visual senses. Thus, Japan used several arts for promotion, ranging from films to performing arts, kamishibai, and music, which were considered the most effective media for influencing uneducated and illiterate people in rural Java. They realised that newspapers, books, magazines, pamphlets, and other written media would impact only limited circles, such as those in urban areas. In fact, many Japanese people live in rural areas. Traditional arts frequently used as propaganda media were wayang kulit purwa and other performing arts such as kethoprak and wayang wong. Therefore, Japan appointed a dhalang (reader of stories in wayang puppet shows) as the propaganda agent. These performances were accompanied by Javanese gamelan music. The above discussion shows that Japanese people, especially those who have served in Java, have a strong bond with Javanese culture (Kurasawa, 1987). Some are known to have brought Javanese gamelan instruments to Japan, as discussed in the next section.

For its propaganda through wayang kulit performances, the Japanese military government adapted stories which reveal signs of past encounters between the Japanese people and karawitan. These stories provide a historical setting of romance that karawitan has created in Japanese society. Even though only a few people are interested in Javanese culture, stories about Javanese traditional performing arts, especially during the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, have proven that karawitan was accepted by the Japanese for a long time.

Japanese people were introduced to the art of karawitan when a set of Javanese gamelan landed in Japan in 1940. An editorial in the Henderson Daily Dispatch (21 October 1940) explained that Ichizo Kobayasi accepted Javanese gamelan instruments after visiting Java. He was a Japanese delegate in negotiations with the Netherlands. He visited Java in October 1940 and met H.J. van Mook (a delegate from the Netherlands) in Sukabumi. In the 1940s, Ichizo Kobayasi also included karawitan elements in the opera performances of the Takarazuka group, and from this the term gamelan Takarazuka was coined (‘Leader of Jap Delegation’, 1940). Yamanashi (2012) discussed the meaning of the Takarazuka gamelan (a gamelan previously played by the Takarazuka opera group) with the initial interest of the Japanese people in Javanese Karawitan. Although not directly related, when Japanese people’s interest in traditional Javanese performing arts emerged in the 1970s, the gamelan Takarazuka became one of the icons in museum exhibitions.

5. Pioneering and developing Javanese Karawitan in Japan

This section discusses the emergence of Karawitan classes at several universities and their later development into a community active today. Exercises, performances, and workshops which are discussed in this section on community activities indicate Japanese people’s acceptance of karawitan. Discussion on the activities of Karawitan communities in Japan is important to capture at least the sustainability of the community and proves that karawitan is still in demand by the Japanese people.

Karawitan did not begin to resonate in Japan until the late 1970s. Unlike the United States, where in 1978 no fewer than 14 universities owned gamelan and taught karawitan, in Japan, only two universities—Tokyo University of Fine Arts and Nagoya College of Music—and the Osaka Ethnology Museum adopted karawitan in 1981. For centuries, Japanese higher education institutions have been interested in Buddhist and Confucian culture in western and foreign societies. At that time (1985), the Japanese were more concerned with “internationalising” their universities. However, almost no efforts have been made at universities to study what foreigners call Japanese culture. The traditional music of painting and art is best studied outside universities.

Because of the efforts of Prof. Koizumi Fumio, who studied karawitan at the University of California, Los Angeles, Javanese karawitan has been taught at the Tokyo University of Fine Arts. Koizumi Fumio was introduced to Javanese karawitan for the first time in 1967–1968 when he was teaching Japanese music at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut, as part of the Visiting Associate Professor program. The experience of knowing karawitan at Wesleyan brought him to Indonesia, and he bought a set of karawitan with slendro tunes in Central Java in 1973. A year later, a karawitan study group was formed at Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and Music (Kawaguchi, 2010), which was followed by the arrival of Saptono, a karawitan teacher from Surakarta, Indonesia, in 1976. Saptono entered into a five-year contract (1979–1984) and helped the Japanese gamelan study group master the skills of playing complete Javanese gamelan music with sindhenan, as seen in Javanese gamelan music concerts held two to three times a year. These celebrations received overwhelming attention from audiences.

Like the Tokyo University of Fine Arts and Music, Osaka University is often referred to as a prominent gamelan centre, where Karawitan was present as part of the a month-long field work project in Yogyakarta in 1977, led by professors from several departments, including Ko Tanimura, Usaburo Mabuchi, and Osamu Yamaguchi. The fieldwork was also attended by several master’s program students, including Shin Nakagawa and Fumi Tamura, who were later known as influential karawitan players and instructors in Japan. After returning from Yogyakarta in 1979, they formed a gamelan group at Osaka University called Dharma Budaya (which means “bearer of culture” in Javanese) (Yamanashi, 2012, p. 55),

Gamelan activities at the Nagoya College of Music were led by female lecturers who were sent to study Javanese and Balinese gamelan in Indonesia. In 1982, the Nagoya College of Music held a gamelan concert. The Arjuna Wiwaha Ballet was presented at the request of the Indonesian Embassy in Tokyo. All ballet scenes were performed by students from the Indonesian School in Tokyo, who were supervised by the Education and Culture attachés. Wayang kulit [shadow puppet] purwa also enjoyed significant attention, as shown in the establishment of the Kyokai Wayang by Matsumoto. The Kyokai Wayang was performed two-three times a year. A two-to three-hour wayang kulit purwa show is held with a Mustam (dhalang from Java). In this performance, apart from being conveyed in Javanese, puppet stories were translated into Japanese. On the screen, the name of each puppet character was written in Katakana (Correspondence with Ananto Wicaksono, 26 February 2021).

In the 1980s, Gamelan became increasingly easy to find, even among those who were not studying at a university. A karawitan workshop was held at Otokoba Haneda in 1987 at the initiation of Fumi Tamura. In subsequent developments, karawitan was studied not only by those who majored in music. Students not majoring in music could also learn Javanese gamelan through extracurricular activities. While learning karawitan is becoming increasingly open, the public can also watch gamelan performances held outside campus (Otokoba, 2018).

To further enhance off-campus art activities, the Lambangsari group was established under the leadership of Tamura Fumi, a student who later became a lecturer at the Tokyo University of Fine Arts. The group had a personal gamelan set and studied dance for several years at the ASKI Surakarta. For Tamara Fimi, karawitan looked more attractive and easier to learn than Javanese dances. LP records of the group called “Saptana Lambangsari” on the sound Reflections on Gamelan combined classical and modern elements and contained pieces from Ladrang Sumirat, Tembang Sinom, Talu, Lalermengeng, Pangkur Dhudha Kasmaran, pieces of Priyagama. This shows that for the last five years (1980–1985) the study of karawitan in Japan had been more advanced.

Unfortunately, Professor Koizumi’s passage and the end of Saptono’s contract forced them to continue on their own. However, even though the gamelan was good, the dance left much to be desired, except for those who had studied in Indonesia for several years (Lambangsari, n.d.c).

5.1. Gamelan group’s activities: similar pattern in transmitting traditional culture

This subsection discusses community activities of alumni from several universities. When they graduated from universities, they could not join formal Javanese karawitan classes; so they could survive and become a part of the community. Interestingly, the consistency of community members indicates that gamelan is embedded in their lives. This shows that the activities of Javanese karawitan communities contributed to the development of karawitan learning, starting from exercises, concerts, and workshops to the way they learn karawitan compositions independently. Interestingly, these communities also teach and introduce karawitan to elementary school students from various Japanese prefectures. Lambangsari is the oldest gamelan in Japan. Before Tokyo University of Fine Arts bought a Javanese gamelan set, a group of students had been regularly learning karawitan at Fumio Koizumi’s house. Karawitan began to be taught as an ethnomusicology practice at Tokyo University of Fine Arts in 1974. Practitioners of karawitan then formed a karawitan group on campus (Lambangsari, n.d.b). This group was called Lambangsari. During approximately five years of training in Saptono’s direction, the students’ interest was so great that they still had the desire to continue practising, even after graduating. This resulted in the expanding membership of Lambangsari. The number of members from outside the university was greater than those from within. Finally, in 1985, Lambangsari was reborn as a new karawitan community with a wider membership.

The number of performances has also increased. In 1985, they held four concerts—30 May, 1–4, 7, 24, 26 August. Of these four performances, perhaps the most memorable concert was held from 26 July to 7 August at an event entitled Fumio Koizumi and the World Folk Music Exhibition. For approximately five years Since 1986, Lambangsari has performed approximately 30 times in both Tokyo and other cities. In the following ten years, from 1991 to 2000, Lambangsari held nearly 100 activities, including workshops and concerts (Lambangsari, 2000).

Another karawitan community in Japan is Dharma Budaya. The Gamelan Dharma Budaya Ensemble was founded in 1979 at the Department of Music, Osaka University, on the initiative of Shin Nakagawa. A set of Javanese karawitan (pelog) were sent from Indonesia at the start of the museum’s intercultural program. After the program ended, the Javanese gamelan set was donated by Shin Nakagawa to Osaka University. Dharma Budaya is a joint project of Osaka University and the Ueno Asia Foundation for the Promotion of Arts and Culture at the Musicology Laboratory, Faculty of Letters, Osaka University. Every year, Dharma Budaya holds concerts in spring (Dharma Budaya, n.d.a).

By 1989, Dharma Budaya held approximately 40 performances. For three years Since 1979, karawitan has been shown at various events within the university. Regular activities, such as concerts and workshops, began in 1982. The first karawitan workshop was held at Osaka University’s Ichio Festival. Two years later, Dharma Budaya began organising karawitan training for high school students through a Middle School Music Appreciation program (Dharma Budaya, n.d.b).

Both Lambangsari and Dharma Budaya conduct regular monthly workshops in their studios. Further, Lambangsari taught karawitan at various elementary schools in Japan and managed to conduct Gamelan classes in three elementary schools. The first karawitan class was held on 9 June 2000 at Kamijinmei Elementary School, Shinagawa City. On 7 July 2000 Lambangsari visited Kawasaki Elementary School to teach at a karawitan class. Kawasaki Miyuki City Elementary School became the final destination for a gamelan appreciation class for elementary school children in 2000. The activity was held on 20 October. Children in elementary schools found learning karawitan interesting and karawitan communities conducted classes for them. This activity of introducing traditional arts to children shows that the Japanese people have a very good awareness of preserving the iemoto learning system through which traditional art is introduced to children from an early age. In this context, community members act as mentors (Lambangsari, n.d.a).

From 2011 to 2019, Lambangsari performed an average of 20 concerts a year, or at least two concerts every month. Further, the group has been concerned with the preservation and dissemination of gamelan in Japan. This was evidenced by the number of workshops that the group held almost every month for both adults and children. Similarly, gamelan classes are held at least three times a year at various elementary schools in Japan, not limited to Tokyo. In 2013, for example, Lambangsari visited three elementary schools to teach Javanese gamelan at an event titled “Elementary School Music Appreciation Party”. The first class was held at Futahashi Elementary School, Yokohama, Japan, on 7 October 2013. On the next day, they attended Kita-ku Nadeshiko Elementary School. Finally, on 20 November, the group held a gamelan class at Kawasaki Higashi Oda Elementary School (Lambangsari, n.d.a).

The ensemble, which still exists today, was dominated by the graduates of the Tokyo University of Fine Arts music study program at the beginning of its formation; however, over time, the membership of Lambangsari expanded. People from various educational backgrounds and professions gather weekly to practice karawitan. Lambangsari especially attracted younger people who loved Javanese karawitan.

Besides initiating the Dharma Budaya karawitan ensemble, Shin Nakagawa founded a karawitan group called Margasari, which is privately managed. This group was founded in 1997 and has two Javanese gamelan sets, slendro and pelog. This group specifically plays Yogyakarta-style karawitan, perhaps because its founders participated in fieldwork in Yogyakarta in 1977. Although Shin Nakagawa is a professor at Osaka City University, Margasari is neither affiliated with the university nor with any other institution. Its membership is very flexible and covers people from various backgrounds, such as lecturers, gamelan trainers, dance teachers, librarians, musicians, and even high school teachers. Marga Sari has training grounds in a village surrounded by rice fields and green mountains, approximately an hour from Osaka. The training lasted for 10 hours a week and was divided into three or more sessions when the performance schedule was tight (McDermott, 2010).

In late 1999, the Osaka National Museum of Ethnology held a special exhibition featuring cultural forms from outside Japan, including Javanese karawitan. This paper contained information from exhibition coordinator Shota Fukuoka and we held interviews with karawitan groups. Karawitan group at Otokoba or Kartika regularly practices every weekend. On Facebook, the participants can be seen practising independently. When they experienced difficulties, their seniors accompanied them. Those who practiced it until they could hit the instrument properly played a few lines of composition repeatedly. When they could play smoothly, all the players joined. In addition to the practice, the workshop also discussed music theory, such as the one on differences in Javanese and Western musical compositions—in this case, non-diatonic and diatonic music. Though participants’ impressions varied, they were mostly positive, particularly those who had just attended the workshop. An example is the impression of Noriyuki Iwadare, who wants to learn a higher technique. He was a new participant and admitted that he was happy to learn the composition of gamelan music. A more romantic impression came from Yuriko Keino, who admitted to sleeping late while imagining the strains of saron after returning from practising gamelan. The romantic impression was evident from her presence during subsequent exercises. Despite the difficulty of their first attempt, they enjoyed practising karawitan music (Otokoba, 2018).

During practice, they took care of the gamelan themselves. All members participated in cleaning musical instruments and repairing them if something is broken (in this case, minor damage such as connecting broken strings). Margasari, karawitan community, practices in a training ground in a small village which is made to resemble training places in Java. Their practice reflects Japanese people’s need for entertainment and something that can get them out of the daily workday routines. They train every weekend to leave their routine and cool off (Margasari, 1997).

5.2. Japanese recognition on Karawitan

Gamelan has become an alternative form of entertainment for Japanese people who want to escape their routine. Moreover, karawitan performances are commonly held at quiet temples. In this context, Margasari is perhaps the most representative group. Shin Nakagawa founded the group in a village surrounded by rice fields and green mountains in Osaka in 1997 as a special Yogyakarta-style karawitan. To reach the village, members of Margasari must travel approximately one hour from Osaka. However, this long journey is not a problem for players from various professions, such as lecturers, high school teachers, librarians, and graphic designers. Additionally, several players submitted comments after completing the stages. A player expressed his happiness about the karawitan performance. He felt so immersed in the strain of karawitan that he could release his fatigue, and it was as if his soul had left his body. His colleague also shared his opinion and stated that karawitan was calming (MargaSari, 1997)

Apart from performance, practising karawitan is also an opportunity for fun. Sometimes, the practice atmosphere is like a recreational room. Some trainees bring their families, including their sons and daughters, who are also given the opportunity to play. Even though the practice is fun, they still show perseverance. Indeed, the Japanese people are known to have a determined character. Some even consider perseverance a part of their morals (Koschmann et al., 1975).

This persistent and determined attitude was also demonstrated by the members of the gamelan group in Japan when they were studying the composition of Javanese drums. First, they tried to play music up to the mark. Second, because they did not have a Javanese teacher, they worked hard to determine the composition of the Javanese gendhing to be played. A more recent development is the use of YouTube videos as learning materials besides gendhing tapes obtained from Java (Correspondence with Kumi Masuda, 26 March 2019). For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, when the practice space was very limited, they shared YouTube videos as learning materials. One video featured students from State Elementary School 1 Wonogiri performing karawitan who played Lancaran Serayu. The Dharma Budaya karawitan group shared a video with all its members to study (Dharma Budaya, 2019).

Japanese people highly appreciate the songs they sing, though these songs were of a non-native Japanese culture. This was observed in the selection of songs at each stage. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the Dharma Budaya group chose gendhing containing prayers. For example, Wilujeng Slendro Manyura, according to them, contains prayers and purification. The song is dedicated to the hope that all trials will end soon, so that peaceful life can be created in everyday life. This demonstrates that the Japanese believe that gamelan is not ordinary music. They explored the meaning of the gendhing they had learned, although in terms of learning, they still maintained local Japanese wisdom. The continuity of karawitan groups in Japan can be maintained because the Japanese people love to be together. They did not even hesitate to move the equipment to perform in a mutual cooperation (Dharma Budaya, 2020). Another form of appreciation of Japanese for karawitan is the documentation of the pieces they have learned in a recorded form. In October 2022, members of Dharma Budaya teamed up with Studio Yamato Okayama. The recording process, published in 2023, showed their appreciation for their work since 2000. Therefore, it is conceivable that they have recorded many musical compositions. This step is also a form of respect for Yamazaki’s leader (Dharma Budaya, 2022).

The Japanese tend to self-teach karawitan or learn independently, under the direction of their leaders. Lambangsari, Dharma Budaya, and Margasari do not have teachers from Java, unlike musical groups from Western countries where the learning of karawitan relies mostly on Javanese teachers. An example is the Sari Raras Group of UC Berkeley (Gamelan of UC Berkeley, 2019). The existence of an overarching institution may have made it easier for gamelan groups in the west to invite Javanese teachers to participate. Contrastingly, karawitan groups in Japan stand independently (not as an integral part of a particular university or institution). With an emphasis on learning methods, they learn using notations written on a large board and a collection of text for each tool. Their learning style probably resembles the style that Javanese people use to learn gamelan as described by Hand (2018), and students at Institut Seni Indonesia [Indonesia Institute of The Arts] (ISI) Surakarta also use notation either written on the blackboard or pocket book in the learning process. The difference is that in Java, in an art education institution, learner’s study in a classroom where the teachers directly present learning materials and information. According to Hand (2018), there are few opportunities for autodidactic learning in art education institutions. The students listened only to the presented material and practiced it.

In the past, the introduction of notation made people’s learning of the composition of gamelan easier. Then they learned gamelan based only on oral narration, namely by imitating the strains of a teacher. During their development, the strains were formulated in written notations, such as Western music. The introduction of notation in Javanese gamelan music has become a catalyst for changes and new developments in gamelan learning. The notation which was found at first only in the courts of Surakarta and Yogyakarta later spread to almost all of Central and East Java (Becker, 1980, p. 11).

6. Conclusion

Through a discussion on the development of Javanese gamelan music in Japan, this study has explained how the Japanese military government used gamelan as a propaganda tool to mobilise people in rural Java. Javanese karawitan have been welcomed since the early interactions between Japanese and Javanese in 1942. The Japanese have a good tradition of preserving their traditional art. They also possess a well-established method of learning traditional music which allows karawitan communities in Japan to train independently. Finally, it would be interesting to conduct a comparative study of traditional performing arts in Japan and Java as separate topics to explore more primary sources from social media and blogs.

Geolocation information

Indonesia and Japan

Acknowledgments

This article is part of research project entitled ‘Penyebarluasan Seni Pertunjukan Tradisi Jawa di Mancanegara [Dissemination of Javanese Traditional Performing Arts in The International Countries]’ funded by Directorate of Higher Education, Ministry of Education, the Republic of Indonesia 2019-2021. The project team consists of Dhanang Respati Puguh and Mahendra Pudji Utama. We express our sincere gratitude to Noor Naelil Masruroh, who became a discussion partner and helped us find a publication platform.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Data availability statement

Publicly accessible information was collected for this study. Data were obtained from all the informants in an electronic format via Facebook (https://www.facebook.com/DharmaBudayaJapan, https://www.facebook.com/Otokouba) and WhatsApp Messenger. The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article in the reference section.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the [Directorate of Higher Education, Ministry of Education, the Republic of Indonesia] under Fundamental Research Grant [Number: 257-05/UN7.6.1/PP/2021].

Notes on contributors

Dhanang Respati Puguh

Dhanang Respati Puguh is an Associate Professor on cultural history at the Department of History, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Diponegoro. His particular interest on cultural politic especially on Javanese culture. His PhD dissertation focuses on strategic efforts of the state and society to preserve and develop Surakarta’s Javanese culture in the 1950s-1990s. He has led several research projects in which mainly focuses on the cultural politics of Javanese karawitan. He assigned as principal investigator for the research project about the globalization of Javanese performing arts (2019-2021); and Javanese performing arts in Singapore (2022). In 2016, he was assigned as a visiting professor at Nagoya University, Japan, and teaching about the Javanese performing arts education. In 2017 and 2018, he appointed as a director wayang orang performance in commemoration of the anniversary of Universitas Diponegoro which was played by the professors.

Mahendra Pudji Utama

Mahendra Pudji Utama is an Assistant Professor on cultural history at the Department of History, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Diponegoro. His particular interest is on cross-cultural society and its impact on the local community. Another interest is about the salt business history in Bali. In the research project, he is involved in two research projects; tourism development in Karangasem, Bali (2021-2022), Globalization of the Javanese performing arts (2019-2021); interaction among inter-ethnic communities in Karimunjawa island (2018-2020). He has been involved in several community services related to the coastal community empowerment in rural areas including in Karimunjawa, Banyuwangi, and Natuna. He is also co-authors for several international publications.

Rafngi Mufidah

Rafngi Mufidah is a research assistant at Center for Asian Studies, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Diponegoro. Her interest is on political culture and cross-cultural issues. She has been involved in the research project about the Javanese gamelan in Singapore (2022) and globalization of the Javanese performing arts (2019-2021). In the community services, she has been participated in the coastal community empowerment programs coordinated by the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries of the Republic of Indonesia under the program of Salt Economic Zone Masterplan in Central Java province.