https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6953-5853
Abstract
Ondel-ondel is a folk entertainment that developed by the Betawi community since the 1970s. Until now, Ondel-ondel still survives and has even become an icon of the capital city of DKI Jakarta. However, the existence of Ondel-ondel is even more threatened, especially after the implementation of a regional regulation of DKI Jakarta Province which prohibits Ondel-ondel as a means of busking. This condition is ironic considering that historically Ondel-ondel was used by the Betawi community as a means of entertainment and became a form of art and culture for the Betawi community. Thus, this study raised Ondel-ondel as a research topic. The research was conducted to examine the visual appearance of Ondel-ondel with iconography and iconology theory approach of Erwin Panofsky. The iconography review emphasizes the theme and concept of Ondel-ondel’s visual appearance which is personification of ancestors. Meanwhile, the interpretation of iconology is the result of the search for the meaning behind the visual appearance of Ondel-ondel which is form of balance of power between anger and kindness and courage and holiness.
PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT
This study raises Ondel-ondel as an object material which studied with an art history approach which is iconography and iconology. This research done by the ironic conditions because currently Indonesian people escpecially Betawi’s people not know about the history of Ondel-ondel. They tend to avoid Ondel-ondel when they see them on the street because of their image as a busker. This is quite ironic considering that historically Ondel-ondel has a long history, especially for the Betawi people, even before the independence of Indonesia Republic. So this research was conducted as a form of reinterpreting the presence of Ondel-ondel as a part of the cultural ideology of Indonesian society, especially the Betawi people.
1. Introduction
Exploring the tangible artifacts, objects, and creations of human societies is the subject of the intriguing and diverse study of material culture. These tangible objects of the past and present provide profound insights about the interactions people have had with their environments, the ways people have expressed their identities, and the ways they have adjusted to constantly changing circumstances. In order to critically evaluate the history, social structure, economy, technology, and cultural practices of various cultures, anthropologists, archaeologists, historians, sociologists, and other academics from many disciplines use material culture studies as their view. This is comparable to how the Ondel-ondel material object was used in this research.
Ondel-ondel is one of the cultural artifacts for the Betawi community. Historically, these giant dolls were part of sacred ritual activities. Initially, Ondel-ondel was known as Barongan, which then since 1970 Betawi people began to use the name Ondel-ondel (Wahidiyat, Citation2019, p. 1). No one knows exactly what the word Ondel-ondel means, but some opinions say that the word comes from the word gondel-gondel (hanging or bergandul), which is based on the movement of Ondel-ondel’s hand that swings when walking (Nasiri, Citation2016, p. 1). Although the exact meaning of the term Ondel-ondel is undetermined, it is known that the object’s meaning might occasionally alter.
Now, the sacredness of Ondel-ondel has shifted to become one of the streets performing arts as well as an icon of the capital Jakarta because Ondel-ondel is a performing art that is also practiced on the Jakarta’s streets, makeing it exposed to the misconception that it is busking (earning money on the streets). This is proven after the provincial government of DKI Jakarta officially imposed rules to fines Ondel-ondel artists who busked, which is places Ondel-ondel as a busking activity (Wardani & Indrawan, Citation2020).
The implementation of this rule reaps the pros and cons of the Jakarta community, considering that Ondel-ondel is a cultural artifact that is very close to the Betawi community and must be preserved. The other hand, Ondel-ondel’s activity of busking on the street also reduces the cultural value of Ondel-ondel itself. This perspective is the basis for the regulation (Wiryono, Citation2021).
Visually, Ondel-ondel’s own appearance is quite contrasting. This is due to its large size, approximately about 2 meters. In addition, the accessories used on Ondel-ondel are quite festive, from the top to the bottom. At the time of the show, Ondel-ondel is always in pairs, where the male Ondel-ondel can be identified through his red face and female Ondel-ondel can be identified through their white faces (Wahidiyat, Citation2019, p. 19).
Thus, the visual appearance of Ondel-ondel becomes an interesting object to be studied from an iconography and iconology point of view. Because of its historical nature, this study is classified as a study of art history. In addition, due to the use of symbols and visual tendencies in the appearance of Ondel-ondel, this study can also be associated with various socio-cultural contexts that occurred in the period of its emergence. As a foundational moment with a strong mythical dimension, it has become a cherished point of reference for the nation’s leaders rely on the most widely accepted cultural iconography to recall this event.
Departing from the previous, the formulation of the problem in this study is as follows: (1) What are the visual aspects that exist in the visual appearance of Ondel-ondel along with factual and expressional meaning? (2) What are the themes and concepts in the visual appearance of Ondel-ondel? (3) What is the meaning behind Ondel-ondel‘s visual appearance? To be able to uncover and interpret the meaning behind Ondel-ondel’s visual appearance requires the theory of iconography and iconology Erwin Panofsky.
2. Literature review
On the Scopus database, only one Ondel-ondel-related paper titled Modern Forms of Indonesian Ghostlore by Frolova (Citation2021). This research tracks the etymology and the further transformation of meanings of the images of ghost and ghouls in Indonesian foklore, such as Ondel-ondel. Apart from this research, there are other related studies outside the Scopus database. Anwar (Citation2023) conducted research related to changes in the meaning and function of Ondel-ondel, who saw Ondel-ondel as an inspiration to make production souvenir products. Changes in the meaning and function of Ondel-ondel in its constituent elements are produced and constructed as a result of the user’s mental thoughts based on its form and context. Interpretations of the meaning of Ondel-ondel craftsmen and connoisseurs at certain times will differ from the policy actions provided by the government. Meanwhile, Supriyanto and Dharsono (Citation2018) have conducted research related to the aesthetic form of Ondel-ondel. In his research, he reviewed changes in the aesthetic form of Ondel-ondel which is currently more friendly because it functions as a means of ceremonial entertainment and decoration for aesthetic purposes. Based on previous researches, there is still an opportunity to study the meaning of Ondel-ondel from other points of view such as iconography and iconology. Therefore, this study was conducted to interpret the visual appearance of Ondel-ondel in the past holistically.
This meaning is carried out using the approach of iconography theory and iconology. Iconography is a method for examining, categorizing, and interpreting an image (Drainville, Citation2018, p. 5). Erwin Panofsky divided this theory into three parts, pre-iconographic description, iconographical analysis, and iconological interpretation (Panofsky, Citation1955, p. 33). Because of these parts iconography and iconology become a prerequisite process of interpreting an image (see Table ).
Table 1. Prerequisite stages in iconography and iconology theory of Erwin Panofsky
Ondel-ondel is a “giant doll” measuring approximately 2 meters. This giant doll is a paired doll. Gender identification of Ondel-ondel included Ondel-ondel with red-faced, beard, and fangs is a male. Ondel-ondel with white faced is a female. Ondel-ondel has a festive costume and is divided into three parts. The top is the head, the middle is the body, and the bottom is the leg. Ondel-ondel’s top consists of coconut flower, crown, palm fiber as hair, and a dyed face. The middle is the costume, for female the costume used is toka-toka, shawl, kebaya and belt, while male’s costumes used are cukin, sadariah clothes and belts. At the bottom, both men and women use a jamblang fabric that covers the entire leg (Wahidiyat, Citation2019) (Figure ).
Figure 1. Ondel-ondel in nowadays: male Ondel-ondel (left) and female Ondel-ondel (right) (source: purbasari, 2019).
As a folk art, the term Ondel-ondel came into use in 1970. Ondel-ondel was formerly known as Barongan. Ondel-ondel has become one of Betawi’s signature arts and is listed as one of the eight Betawi cultural icons set in Regulation No. 11 of 2017 on Betawi cultural icons. From the regulation, it is explained that philosophically Ondel-ondel as a symbol of power that maintains security and order, toughness, courage, firm, honest, and anti-manipulation. As a Betawi cultural icon, Ondel-ondel will be staged at a traditional Betawi wedding or any other important event. And before the 1970s, staging Ondel-ondel became a sacred event with ritual offerings. The ritual is no longer used (Paramita, Citation2018).
The current development of the times has an impact on the philosophical meaning of Ondel-ondel in the eyes of the Indonesian people, especially for the Betawi community itself. Modern Betawi people today are more familiar with Ondel-ondel as an object of cement. This is very different from the understanding of the Betawi people in the past who adhered to animist beliefs and dynamism with various rituals (Rosita et al., Citation2019, p. 78).
3. Method
This study uses a descriptive qualitative method with iconography and iconology of Erwin Panofsky as the main theory. Iconography and iconology theory are used to reveal and identify the meaning of the visual appearance through Ondel-ondel. As a prerequisite theory, iconography and iconology have methodological stages and are divided into pre-iconographic descriptions, iconographic analysis, and iconological interpretations. The study was conducted based on literature review as the main data source. The limitation of this study is that the study was conducted solely on the visual appearance of Ondel-ondel including the giant size and three main parts of Ondel-ondel. This limit is set because these two aspects are the main characteristics of Ondel-ondel.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Pre-Iconographic analysis of Ondel-ondel
The main discussion at the pre-iconographic description stage is to identify the visual aspects of Ondel-ondel. At this stage, it is necessary to look for factual and expressive meanings from the visual appearance of Ondel-ondel. The factual meaning is obtained from the shape characteristics of the object and its changes from the scene of a particular event. Meanwhile, the expressional meaning is carried out to reveal empathy based on the habits and familiarity of Ondel-ondel (Panofsky, Citation1955).
The main characteristics of the appearance of Ondel-ondel lie in its large size, head parts, and body parts. The three main parts of the Ondel-ondel appearance can be divided into the top (head), the middle (body), and the bottom (legs). In this study, the part to be studied is the size and the top (head) of Ondel-ondel.
In detail at the head appears coconut flowers, hair from coconut fiber (back of the head), crown, and face mask. For male Ondel-ondel the color of the face is red, has a beard and fangs, while the female Ondel-ondel face color will be white (Wahidiyat, Citation2019, p. 3) (Figure ). Description of the visual appearance of Ondel-ondel is also the factual meaning of the research.
Figure 2. Ondel-ondel in 1970s (source: purbasari, 2019).
Ondel-ondel is larger than the size of a real human, this size forms and crown over the head as an expression related to “something” greater than human power. Another symbolic use on Ondel-ondel is on the head which consists of a collection of coconut flowers. Coconut flowers (manggar) have a decorative expression, this is because coconut flowers are often used as decorations on special occasions by the Betawi community. Ondel-ondel also has a red face for male and white for female. The red color expresses anger and courage. Also, in male there are beards and fangs that further strengthen the expression of anger and courage. For female, the white color expresses holiness and goodness.
Furthermore, the description of the appearance is used to reveal the expressional meaning of Ondel-ondel’s appearance. To sharpen the assumptions at this stage, we applied corrective principles to the history of the style. Style is a sign of civilization that contains zeitgeist so that it is able to reflect the cultural environment or social system that is a part (Heller & Chwast, Citation1988).
Ondel-ondel has a larger size than the normal size of a human with a human-like face and festive costumes. Ondel-ondel’s express visualization style is included in the fantasy style. Fantasy style is a style that relies on imagination or imagination in creating a work of art. Fantasy styles tend to be influenced by artists’ desire to manifest forms according to their fantasies. Artists are no longer fixated on the formal rules of art in general, so artists realize their work based on their delusions both logical and irrational (Feldman, Citation1967).
Because of its fantasy-based nature of the artist, the realization of the work also departs from the understanding that expression arises because of the taste, karsa, and ideas of a society or community that are realized in the form of symbols that have been passed down from generation to generation (Putra, Citation2015). Ondel-ondel is a folk performance that has undergone change in the 1970s, previously known as Barongan. The origin of the creation of Barongan which later developed into Ondel-ondel has not been thoroughly revealed. But the expressive expression style used is able to move ideas into tradition symbolic forms that are familiar with the understanding of society in that period for generations. Thus, the expressional meaning visualized by Ondel-ondel is a tradition symbolic that expresses “something” greater than human who has the property of pairing between anger-power and chastity-goodness.
4.2. Iconographic analysis
The second stage in iconographic-iconological review is the iconographic analysis stage. The focus at this stage is on identifying secondary meanings as well as their relation to the theme and concept of Ondel-ondel’s visual appearance. The first process is to make observations to see the relationship between the theme and the concept of the visual appearance of Ondel-ondel based on everyday experience at that period. The sources used in these observations are derived from various images, literary sources, and allegory (Panofsky, Citation1955). Theme is the subject or basis of a story, while a concept is a design, idea or understanding abstracted from a concrete event. In terms of creation, the theme as the basis of the story for the concept of the idea. The concept departs from concrete events. So that the theme becomes a conception conveyed in the work, in this study is the visual appearance of Ondel-ondel.
At the iconography analysis stage, the corrective principle required is type history. Type history is historical conditions that influence the convention of a theme or concept expressed in specific objects and events that occur at a time and region (Panofsky, Citation1955) Corrective principle is used to reveal how various historical conditions that occurred at that time were able to influence the formation of themes and concepts from the visual appearance of Ondel-ondel.
Ondel-ondel has an expressional meaning as a form of symbol of tradition. Ondel-ondel itself is included in the form of dance art that is displayed to the community. In the realm of folk performance in the era of the 1970s and previously, Indonesian people especially on the island of Java are still often shown traditional performance that are loaded with mystical religious values (Figure ). Performance as a mantra of liberation is a kind of singing and prayer that accompanies important ceremonies from life to death. This is done to connect with higher powers in order to gain prosperity and salvation. Rejecting the bad forces that cause severe pain and other disasters (Holt, Citation1967).
Figure 3. Barongan (source: purbasari, 2019).
Ondel-ondel is larger than the real human size. This size expresses the tradition symbolic form related to “something” greater than human power. In addition, the use of a crown over the head of Ondel-ondel becomes a kind of attribute that can be interpreted as a high and important level. Before the 1970s, Ondel-ondel was known as Barongan. Based on literature, Barongan was created in Betawi Pinggir and was inspired by the Chinese and Sundanese who believed in something “big” must have unlimited power (Wahidiyat et al., Citation2022). Barongan is large, and it is used as the personification of ancestors who serve to protect the villagers (Suriyadarma, Citation2018).
At that time, it became natural among Indonesian traditional society to believe in mystical things mixed with royal customs. Even religious beliefs are still mixed with indigenous beliefs as a legacy of the kingdom. It is as stated by Geertz that religion is part of a cultural system or a system of symbols on an emotional, coercive, subjective, and individual level. Thus, the meaning in these symbols is transmitted historically through conceptions in symbolic form as a way for humans to communicate and develop their knowledge and attitudes towards life (Geertz, Citation1992). So that the realization of Ondel-ondel which is an evolution of Barongan, as the personification of ancestors who have greater and important value than humans is symbolized by its large size and the crown it uses can be interpreted as a form of greatness and higher entity that exceeds than humans.
Another tradition symbolic use on Ondel-ondel is on the head which consists of a collection of coconut flowers. Coconut flowers have been used for centuries even before the 1970s in traditional occasions. In a wedding, for example, coconut flowers are used as decorative elements that complement the wedding ritual. In her book, Claire Holt reveals that the headdress becomes very important in a dance. Headdresses are a feature of a dance often made of flowers and even a crown (Holt, Citation1967). Barongan also uses coconut flowers as decoration on the head, as well as Ondel-ondel. Although Ondel-ondel coconut flower decoration used is coconut flowers made from paper and become a symbol of the original coconut flower.
Another traditional symbols on Ondel-ondel are red face, beard, and fangs for men and white face for women. Ondel-ondel men have a red face, beard, and fangs that express anger and courage, while Ondel-ondel women have a white face that expresses chastity. The philosophical use of color has been used since antiquity. In puppetry, which is one of the art traditions of Indonesia, color is used philosophically to symbolize something. Color is used as a mystical association. Four magical colors in Indonesian society that are often used in mask or puppet shows are black, white, yellow, and red. These four colors are often associated with four-way winds (Holt, Citation1967). According to Wojowasito dictionary, a symbol is a sign that contains a certain purpose. In puppetry, white has the meaning of kindness, and red has the meaning of courage (Rukiah, Citation2015).
So, based on that familiarity the use of colors white and red on Ondel-ondel’s face can be express as anger and courage, kindness and chastity. On the male Ondel-ondel, expressions of anger and courage are reinforced with beards and fangs appearing on the face.
At the iconography analysis stage, as a corrective principle, it requires the principle of correction to the history of the type. Type history is historical conditions that influence the convention of a theme or concept expressed in the form of specific objects and events that occur at a time and region (Panofsky, Citation1955). Corrective principles seek to reveal how various historical conditions that occurred at that time to be able to influence the formation of themes or concepts in the visual appearance of Ondel-ondel.
In the same period as Ondel-ondel, the theme of ancestors’ personification or “something” large that surpasses humans is often shown in special events in Indonesia. Based on historical records, the presence of Ondel-ondel itself can be confirmed through the records of one of the English traders, W. Scot mentioned that in 1605 there was a doll similar to Ondel-ondel that was found in the village and Batavia protocol building. In addition, E.R. Scidmore, an American tourist and lived in Batavia, noted in his book “Java, The Garden of The East” that at the end of the 19th century there was a street art performance in Betawi in the form of dance (Dewanti, Citation2014).
Folk performances using life-size dolls are not only performed by Ondel-ondel. In those days, there were also other shows as people’s entertainment. Tangible art similar to Ondel-ondel among them is Badawang (Figure ). Sirck Coolsma, a Dutch aristocrat revealed under Badawang is een pop ter grootte en van de gedaante van een mensch (vgl. Bebegig),meaning doll in human form and size, who serves in the parade (Coolsma, Citation1913).
Figure 4. Badawang Parahyangan (sumber: www.kemdikbud.go.id) and Figure 2. Indonesian puppets (source: www.Iels.org).
The personification of ancestors or something large than human becomes a theme in symbolic concept. Ondel-ondel, for example, the concept of red and white as well as the attributes of beards and fangs on the face express anger and courage as well as kindness and chastity. This concept is like puppetry. In puppets, a knight will have a soft white face, while his giant rival has a red face, from which one will know the noble character and the giant (Holt, Citation1967).
The themes and concepts in Ondel-ondel’s performance reveal the tendencies used in the period, especially for folk art performances. Ondel-ondel’s visual appearance has an expressive style with themes of ancestral tradition and symbolic concepts. The impressions and allegory expressed in the appearance of Ondel-ondel are influenced by the beliefs, conditions, and situation of Betawi society in the 1970s. Although it was independent, the Betawi people at that time still had knowledge of customs mixed with the religious values of the Betawi community.
4.3. Iconology interpretation
The final stage in this study is the interpretation of iconology. This stage is an essential stage, starting from iconography analysis. The nature of this stage is a result of synthetic intuition from the two previous stages. Synthetic intuition is obtained based on the psychological condition or social mindset that work of that period (Panofsky, Citation1955). The demystification of mystical-ritual objects that are told theatrically and humorously continues to build mystical discourses in modern society and succeeds in changing the behavior of residents staying at home.
The tendency of folk performance in the period of the 1970s is a work that leads to expressive styles with themes of ancestral traditions embodied through symbolic concepts. Symbol is something that has significance and resonance with culture. Symbols have the ability to influence and also have deep meaning (Berger, Citation2010). The selection and use of symbols also influenced by the circumstances and conditions that became the scope in the period the art object was created. Symbols can change their expression anytime so to understand the symbolic expression of a period must consider the soul of the epoch that developed in that period.
Ondel-ondel is an ancestral symbol that has powers beyond ordinary human reason. This power is manifested in the large form size of Ondel-ondel, larger than normal human body. Ondel-ondel is created in pairs, namely men and women where Ondel-ondel men are manifested expressively through red faces, beards, and fangs that describes the anger and courage it has, while Ondel-ondel women are manifested expressively through a white face that describes the all-roundness of chastity and kindness. Although opposite, this couple complements and balances each other.
The meaning in the stage of iconological interpretation is done without forgetting the confirmation framework as a corrective principle. Corrective principles are used based on the cultural history that builds the visual appearance of Ondel-ondel. Ondel-ondel is a Betawi community art formed through the process of assimilation generation to generation between local people from Java, Bali, and Bugis with immigrants from China, India, and Arabia (Dewanti, Citation2014). It is because of this process of assimilation that various beliefs are mixed into one which is then believed and run by the Betawi community. Ondel-ondel at that time was used as a folk performance on important events in the community such as weddings, harvests, and so on and served as a rejecting bad thing (Dayang Desa). For this reason, Ondel-ondel men are depicted as having a red face, beard, and fangs, which serve to scare and dispel the forces of evil, while Ondel-ondel women who are depicted with white faces serve as a counterweight that brings good strength.
This is in line with Yahya Andi Saputra interviews, chairman of the Jakarta Oral Tradition Arts Association, Betawi cultural observer, and Betawi Culture Administrator (31 July 2021) regarding to the color appearance of the Ondel-ondel mask, the lively and striking color of the overall appearance of the Ondel-ondel. The red or other dark colors on men’s Ondel-ondel masks give a manly, scary appearance, with the meaning of firmness, strength and steadfastness. This is in accordance with the function of Ondel-ondel as a ward off disaster and protector of the Betawi people. Women’s Ondel-ondel masks are colored white, giving a pure and clean appearance with the meaning of gentleness, motherhood and patience in accordance with its function as a balancer for men’s Ondel-ondel.
Ondel-ondel is displayed at every Betawi folk festival such as weddings, circumcisions, and others except death. This folk party invites many Betawi people to have fun. Therefore, Ondel-ondel was presented at the event with high contrast colors opposite each other to attract the attention of many people and add to the cheerful atmosphere. Balance is a colossal dynamic in the positive and negative content of the cosmic order of the traditional world that influences how an object is created. Stories and beliefs conveyed from generation to generation are known as tambo (history), that is the knowledge of ancient stories and the history of kings. Then, the science of spiritual knowledge that refers to the perfection of magical power as an essence (Holt, Citation1967, p. 267). The tendency to use stories as well as spiritual knowledge in the visual appearance of folk performances was used based on the familiarity of Betawi society in the 1970s. Until finally the formation of the visual appearance of Ondel-ondel, which is described expressively with the theme and concept of symbolic personification of the ancestral power of the Betawi people.
5. Conclusion
The study of iconography and iconology is a branch of art history that is able to reveal the meaning of an art object reviewed based on the circumstances and conditions when the art object was created. In this study, the object of the art is Ondel-ondel. The first conclusion regarding the visual appearance of Ondel-ondel has a factual meaning which is large size, red face, beard, and fangs on men’s Ondel-ondel; and white face on women’s Ondel-ondel. Ondel-ondel’s visual appearance expresses “something” greater than human who has the property of pairing between anger-courage and chastity-kindness. In the history of style, disclosures like this are included as expressive styles. The second conclusion is about the themes and concepts that make up the visual appearance of Ondel-ondel. The theme used is the personification of ancestors or something large than human. The concept used is symbolic. Historically, the type of symbolic embodiment of folk performing arts objects is widely used to express its believed value. The third conclusion about the meaning behind Ondel-ondel’s visual appearance is a form of balance of power between anger and kindness and courage and holiness. In the cultural history, this can be applied because of the exception to use stories and spiritual knowledge based on the familiarity of the Betawi people in that period.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Mita Purbasari Wahidiyat
Mita Purbasari Wahidiyat has been a faculty member at Bina Nusantara University, Indonesia since 1999. In the field of research, she focuses in visual culture related to arts, visual communication design, sociology, history, and semiotics. She also becomes a reviewer for several nationally accredited journals and community service activities in Indonesia.
Donna Carollina
Donna Carollina is a faculty member at Bina Nusantara University, Indonesia. From undergraduate to master's degree, she took a major in the field of visual studies, especially in the field of visual communication design. The focus of the research area is visual studies, culture, and urban art.
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