“Gender and social power dynamics in compliment responses: A cross-cultural pragmatic study of university students in Indonesia and Pakistan”

Abstract

This cross-cultural study examines the dynamics of compliment response strategies among university students in Indonesia and Pakistan, focusing on the influence of gender and power dynamics. The study utilizes a mixed-methods approach, through qualitative analysis, we identified prevalent themes and patterns in students’ responses by categorizing them according to Yu’s classification. Subsequently, we quantified these qualitative categories using frequencies and percentages, offering a comprehensive understanding of the distribution of various compliment response strategies. The study comprises 100 undergraduate students evenly split between Indonesia and Pakistan, with equal gender representation (25 males, 25 females) in each country, aged 18–24. Data collection employed a Google Forms questionnaire as a Discourse Completion Task. The questionnaire encompassed demographic details and responses to compliment scenarios. Upon data collection, responses were categorized into six strategies based on Yu’s (Yu, 2004) taxonomy. Noteworthy variations emerge in compliment response strategies between Indonesian and Pakistani students, as well as across gender lines. Indonesian participants, reflecting cultural values of modesty and social harmony, display a preference for acceptance and amendment strategies. In contrast, Pakistani students, particularly males, show a higher propensity for no acceptance and no acknowledgment strategies, alongside acceptance and amendment strategies. These findings underscore the intricate dynamics of compliment responses, spotlighting the interplay of gender, power dynamics, and cultural influences. The study paves the way for future exploration of intercultural communication and fosters cross-cultural connections. This is particularly relevant for Pakistan, where limited research on compliment responses exists.

Keywords:

• compliment responses
• cross-cultural pragmatics
• DCT
• gender
• power dynamics
• intercultural communication

1. Introduction

1.1. Background

A language is recognized as a form of spoken or written communication with unique cultural and linguistic characteristics. To support themselves and cope with their indigenous variation in their speech communities, the speakers of any language must understand all the sociocultural and linguistic norms assigned by their communication system. People frequently express their thoughts, opinions, and emotions when communicating in daily life to address various issues and worries and make an effort to comprehend the feelings of others. Most likely, this type of interaction strengthens one’s feelings toward or disparity from other people and the relationships that one has with them. Communication happens in a variety of settings with people from various linguistic and traditional experiences. Each language and culture has its own set of social conventions and patterns that its narrators employ to carry out a variety of speech duties, such as praising, rejecting, advising, and celebrating. Being courteous is a crucial component of any discussion. People act and speak politely to respect others and be respected in return. Politeness is more than just a matter of formality and procedure; it is a fundamental aspect of social reality. A regular interaction that has become ingrained in our lives is compliment-giving. It serves a crucial communicative purpose by fostering solidarity in interpersonal interactions.

A significant area of pragmatics research is a speech act. Researchers in linguistics and pragmatics have concentrated more on the study of speech act behaviors since the 1970s, including those associated with apologies, requests, recommendations, compliments and compliment responses, and so on. The sociolinguistic study of complimenting behavior is valuable since it happens regularly in our daily lives. It is crucial for communication and helps build, maintain, and advance interpersonal relationships (Holmes, 1988). Compliment performance and compliment response frequently occur together. To put it another way, the recipient must respond to compliments from others, whether they are accepted or rejected. Depending on the social context and the characters involved, different compliments have different applications and reactions.

A verbal act known as a compliment is one that directly or unreservedly gives acknowledgment to someone else, generally, the individual being addressed, for some trait or quality that both the speaker and the listener find admirable. Using compliments as tools to strengthen the bond between speaker and hearer and to bridge social gaps. They are at least intended to counterbalance or neutralize the FTA’s propensity for creating distance between nations (Holmes, 1988). One of the most crucial linguistic techniques that interlocutors employ to craft relational meaning and establish and maintain connection and solidarity between the interactants is complimenting. It is stated that compliments act as societal lubricants and oil the social wheels. The simplest explanation of how compliments work regards them as favorably effective speech acts fixed towards the recipient that helps to deepen or strengthen the bond of friendship between the speaker and recipient (Wolfson, 1983). The creation and maintenance of relational solidarity and harmony are aided by compliment responses (CRs) (Heidari et al., 2009). Hobbs well-defined a compliment as a speech act that expresses or implies acclaim to the addressee (Hobbs, 2003). Compliments fall under the category of “expressive” in Searle’s (1969) definition, meaning that the speech act is primarily created to serve a social purpose and tries to reveal a psychological condition. This is known as “phatic communion” in the context of the speech act theory (Senft, 2009).

Pomerantz was the first researcher to look into how people respond to compliments. She asserted that while responding to compliments, two universal rules of speaking etiquette conflict “admit with the speaker” and “evade self-praise” (Pomerantz, 1978). In other cultures, compliment responses are used to express modesty and avoid appearing boastful (Pomerantz, 1984). Compliment responses are a ubiquitous form of communication that plays a significant role in shaping social interactions and relationships (Holmes & Brown, 1987). Without responses, the intended goal of praises can scarcely be reached and instead, the offense may result. Responses are equally crucial as the preceding deed. According to Brown and Levinson, giving compliments properly becomes important because the deed of complimenting can also be perceived as a type of positive politeness technique. Although it’s generally accepted that responding appropriately to compliments is vital, doing so can be difficult since the person receiving the compliment may find it difficult to carry out the deed (Brown & Levinson, 1978). However, compliment responses are influenced by various sociocultural factors, including gender and power dynamics. Understanding how individuals from different cultural backgrounds respond to compliments can provide valuable insights into the complex interplay between gender and social power dynamics. Gender differences in compliment responses have been documented in previous research, with women being more likely to respond to compliments with modesty and self-deprecation than men (Holmes & Brown, 1987). Social power dynamics, such as age, status, and social hierarchy, can also influence compliment responses (Kienpointner, 1997). For example, individuals in higher social positions may respond differently to compliments than those in lower social positions.

In some cultures, compliment responses are used to maintain social relationships and reinforce social hierarchies (Billmyer, 1990). The response to a compliment varies depending on the situation and the hearer’s interpretation. In casual discussions, saying “thank you” is typically reserved for compliments. However, as explored by Grossi, there are several scenarios in which different answers show up. The answer may be in line with the expression’s purpose, such as to make a recommendation or soften a critique, or it may come across as rejection or a genuine expression of admiration for both ability and looks (Grossi, 2009). The way people respond to compliments differs on gender. Male compliments are generally accepted by females, according to research on a body of 1063 compliment events, but compliments from women are met with a wider range of responses, such as mitigating (commenting on the past, shifting the blame, enquiring, and repaying the compliments), reject, no acknowledgment, or appeal explanation (such as “I’m glad to give it to you as a gift”). These variations demonstrate that the purpose and frequency of praises as speech actions change according to sex (Holmes, 1986).

The behavior of complimenting and complimenting responses is becoming more difficult when two cultures come in contact with each other. Every individual has their own culture and each has its customs, rituals, principles, and traditions. When people from various cultures are communicating and they use compliments and compliment responses is difficult to understand. Since it entails one’s capacity to utilize suitable expression when offering and receiving attributive credit, complimenting is a cultural feature. According to research, the native culture of the speaker has an impact on the complimenting. The research demonstrates the sociolinguistic transfer of the national culture as displayed by college students from Korea and Japan (Kim, 2003). Chen and Rau’s study looked at how American English native speakers’ perceptions of Chinese speakers’ compliments varied from those of innate English speakers in the United States. According to their research, compliments and responses may encompass a variety of issues, including giving the wrong amount of information, complimenting the wrong person or item, and being disrespectful or overstating something. These issues go against Grice’s rules for polite communication (Chen & Rau, 2011). People of the same social rank should naturally develop their friendship through compliments when it comes to power interactions. Paying and receiving compliments from persons of different statuses, nevertheless, seems more difficult.

In our globally interconnected world, where diverse cultures converge, the interplay of sociocultural norms becomes intricate, particularly when considering the intersection of gender and social power dynamics. This study’s foundation lies in the recognition that individuals from different cultural backgrounds navigate the art of complimenting and responding differently. Indonesian and Pakistani cultures bring unique nuances to interpersonal communication. The study’s focus on these cultures is intentional, driven by a desire to illuminate the challenges, motivations, similarities, and disparities that arise when two distinct cultural contexts engage in the act of giving and receiving compliments.

1.2. Research questions and objectives

This study aims to delve into the compliment response strategies employed by Indonesian and Pakistani students, shedding light on the intricate connections between gender, social power dynamics, and cultural influences. By investigating the behaviors surrounding compliment responses, the study seeks to uncover the reasons behind variations, offering insights into the roles of gender and power in shaping these interactions.

The research questions emerged from a realization that compliment responses are more than mere linguistic exchanges—they encapsulate cultural values, social hierarchies, and individual identities. The inquiry into the most commonly employed strategies among Indonesian and Pakistani students arises from a curiosity to explore the impact of culture on communication practices. Similarly, the investigation into gender-based resemblances and variances aims to understand how gender norms and expectations intersect with cultural dynamics in influencing response patterns. Lastly, the exploration of compliment response strategies across power statuses emerges from the recognition that sociocultural hierarchies can significantly shape communication behaviors.

2. Review of the existing literature

2.1. Cross-cultural studies of compliments and compliment responses

The speech acts and linguistic realizations of different languages vary. One of the key causes for cross-cultural misinterpretations has been these variations in speech act conventions (Holmes & Brown, 1987; Wolfson, 1981). The distinctions across languages and the diversity of world cultures, in general, provide the foundation for stimulating contrastive analysis of how native speakers realize speech acts. Both linguists and pragmatics experts may find the differences in speech acts among languages, which are influenced by cultures, to be a source of concern. When addressing other interlocutors, speakers must be attentive to all the specifics of the speech community and take them into account. Being pragmatically inept puts the coherence and connections of close relationships between oneself and others at risk and wastes the efforts put forth for message delivery and building g rapport during the communication process (Thomas, 1983). According to Wolfson, speech acts vary crosswise traditions in how they are grasped and in their distribution, number of occurrences, and the purposes they assist (Wolfson, 1981). Golato and Huth conducted cross-cultural studies on the usage of praises by American English-speaking German students utilizing a Conversation Analysis. The results of the assessments indicate that German speakers preferred to agree with the remark whereas American speakers preferred to express gratitude with words like “thank you” (Golato, 2003; Huth, 2006). Yu compared the differences between compliments and compliment responses in data gathered in Boston and Taipei throughout a two-year ethnographic study. The study discovered important variations in cultural norms. The data from the US indicated that compliments were given more frequently (Yu, 2005).

To investigate the happening of cultural transfer, gender, and power relations, Indah analyzed the complimenting techniques used by Indonesian EFL students. The findings showed that compared to female learners, male learners typically employ fewer complementing tactics. The outcomes also showed how the choice of complimentary terms was influenced by the power dynamics between the interlocutors. As the study’s background, the Islamic institution produced some complimenting methods that reflect the power relationship with the listeners. For instance, the participants found it challenging to complement or speak positively about their teachers, senior citizens, or higher-ranking speakers (Nur Indah, 2017). Cedar did a comparative study between Indonesian EFL learners and Thai EFL learners on compliment responses in English. The results showed that there were significant compliment response disparities between Indonesians and Thais, which were caused by traditional variations between the 2 clusters of individuals and by differing praise topic choices. In general, it was discovered that Thais tended to accept compliments whereas Indonesians were more likely to reject them (Cedar & Setiadi, 2016).

2.2. Differences in compliment responses by gender

Using 484 compliments from the participants, Holmes researched the compliments as practiced by men and women New Zealanders. The researcher suggested three categories of compliment response strategies in her analysis: accept, reject, and deflect or evade. Compared to women, men were more likely to dismiss or purposefully avoid a compliment. The findings showed no gender variances in the overall replies to the rejection of praise (Holmes, 1988). Female speakers of English inclined to deliver and collect more compliments to and from other female and male speakers, while male speakers are inclined to deliver more compliments to females about their general presence and, to a slighter extent, to other male speakers (Manes & Wolfson, 1981; Wolfson, 1983). According to Wang and Tsai’s research, male Taiwanese students employed more refusals while responding to compliments while their female counterparts tended to employ queries that expressed astonishment (Wang & Tsai, 2003). In an analysis of Polish compliments, Jaworski found that whereas men frequently used compliments to negotiate in-group power dynamics, women tended to trade compliments to create relational solidarity (Jaworski, 1995).

Expanding a Discourse Completion Task (DCT), Yousefvand examined 30 male and female undergraduate students from two Iranian universities. Findings revealed that Persian speakers typically agreed with a compliment, which inclined to indicate their deeply ingrained diffidence. Gender had a significant impact on compliment responses as well. Females tended to react to a compliment with acceptance or surprise, whereas boys were more inclined to evade a compliment by adopting prescribed emotions and ascending down the established compliments (Yousefvand, 2010).

To determine whether the compliment responses of females vary depending on culture and the sex of the complimenter, Murillo looked at the compliment responses of twenty applicants, 10 Latin American and 10 Australian women. A survey with three possible outcomes (ability, possessions, appearances) was used to elicit information (on looks, goods). It also made use of the rapport management approach to highlight how crucial managing interpersonal relationships is to preserve social order. In terms of possessions, both of these ladies from the two cultures accepted the compliment and contributed a comment history; they also both utilized avoidance techniques, particularly when a man was the complimenter. When appreciating a woman’s cooking skills, certain differences were seen, notably in Latin American compliment responses, such as “I made it with love for you. “Thank you, it was made with; I’m so glad you liked it”. It tasted nice because of love, and I’m delighted you like it. This would sound strange to Australian ladies, thus Latin American women would fail on a practical level (Murillo, 2012). At the University of Malaya (UM), Xiang looked at how thirty boys and thirty girls native Chinese students performed compliments and compliment responses. The findings displayed that male students used less explicit compliments and more implicit, non-complimentary, and no-response methods than female students. Both boys and girls chose acceptance over rejection techniques when responding to compliments, but boys were inclined to utilize more non-acceptance, amendment, and no-response tactics than girls. In contrast, women utilized acceptance and combination tactics more frequently than men. The conventional roles that Chinese men and women play, the purpose of praise, and Chinese culture are all reflected in these discrepancies (Zhao, 2013).

2.3. Research gap and novelty of the current study

The exploration of cross-cultural variations in compliment responses, especially within the contexts of gender and social power dynamics, has garnered significant attention from researchers. Existing literature, as reviewed, reveals a multitude of insights into the intricate ways in which compliment responses are influenced by cultural norms, gender roles, and social relationships. However, the available studies present a picture of the complexity without fully unpacking the nuances specific to the cross-cultural interaction between Indonesian and Pakistani students. Moreover, while several studies have illuminated gender-based differences in compliment responses, the context of gender within Indonesian and Pakistani cultures demands a more in-depth investigation.

In light of this literature review, it is evident that there remains a gap in the understanding of how gender and social power dynamics intersect to shape compliment response strategies within these specific cultural contexts. While previous studies have provided valuable insights, they often lack the granularity required to fully capture the diverse ways in which Indonesian and Pakistani students navigate the terrain of complimenting and compliment responses. Additionally, the socio-cultural factors unique to these societies remain underexplored in the existing body of research.

The current study seeks to address these gaps by conducting a comprehensive cross-cultural pragmatic analysis of compliment responses among university students in Indonesia and Pakistan. By focusing on these two distinct cultures, we aim to provide a more detailed understanding of how gender and social power dynamics influence compliment response strategies. The interaction of Islamic values, cultural norms, and gender roles within these societies is anticipated to introduce novel patterns that may deviate from previous findings.

By delving into the compliment response strategies of Indonesian and Pakistani students, this study aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge by shedding light on the unique interactions of gender, culture, and power within these specific cultural landscapes. Through this study, we seek to provide fresh perspectives that not only enrich the field of pragmatics but also offer insights into effective cross-cultural communication.

3. Theoretical framework

3.1. Compliment and compliment responses

Compliments and their corresponding responses are frequently employed as speech acts in everyday language usage. The primary purpose of these acts is to positively impact the addressee by using favorable words or expressions, ultimately aiming to evoke a sense of well-being or positive feelings (Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, 1989). Pomerantz was the first researcher to look into how people respond to compliments. She asserted that while responding to praise, two universal rules of speaking etiquette conflict. Show agreement with the narrator and evading self-praise are two competing maxims (Pomerantz, 1978). According to Gajaseni, receiving praise puts one at risk of coming out as egotistical or impudent. On the other side, one runs the danger of not being polite if one rejects a compliment (Gajaseni, 1994).

3.2. Compliment response strategy

Different researchers have developed various compliment response approaches while researching compliments and compliments responses. These approaches are somehow interconnected and intersect with each other in one way or another. For instance, Herbert offers a distinction between two primary categories of compliment responses agreement and non-agreement each comprising six subcategories (Herbert, 1989). Similarly, Holmes classifies praise response techniques into 3 broad categories: accept, reject, deflect, or evade, which are further delineated into 12 micro techniques (Holmes, 1988). In the present study, Yu’s (2004) comprehensive model was chosen due to its detailed consideration of participant responses, surpassing previous models proposed by Holmes (1988) and Herbert 1989(). Yu’s model encompasses six main compliment response strategies, with further subcategorizations (Yu, 2004).

1. Acceptance Strategies: Phrases or responses used to acknowledge and accept a preceding remark as a compliment.

   • (1.1) Appreciation Token: Phrases or responses used to acknowledge a foregoing statement as praise without specifically addressing the details of the praise. Typically, these expressions convey gratitude, such as “Thank you

   • (1.2) Agreement: Phrases or responses that agree with the complimentary nature of the narrator’s remark by directly aligning themselves with the compliment. Like “Yeah, I also think it went well.”

   • (1.3) Pleasure: Phrases or responses that indicate the receiver’s satisfaction or delight. Such as “I’m glad you liked it.”

   • (1.4) Association: Phrases or responses that combine multiple acceptance strategies mentioned above. For instance, “Thank you! I’m pleased you enjoyed it.”

• (2) Amendment Techniques: When acknowledging a preceding statement as a compliment, the narrator endeavors to modify or alter the intended impact of the compliment.

  • (2.1) Return: Phrases or responses that counter the deed of praising by proposing tribute back to the speaker. Such as “You also did a great job.”

  • (2.2) Downgrade: Phrases or responses that diminish the strength of the admiration. Like “It was just okay.”

  • (2.3) Upgrade: Phrases or responses that intensify the compliment. For instance, “Yeah, I outdid myself today, huh?”

  • (2.4) Question: Phrases or responses that express doubt or demand the honesty or pertinence of the compliment. Such as “Is that so? Do you truly think I presented well?”

  • (2.5) Comment: Responses that recognize the impact of the compliment but refrain from taking personal credit for the accomplishment or attitude being praised. Instead, the speaker deflects the praise by depersonalizing its significance. For instance, “I worked hard for it yesterday.”

  • (2.6) Transfer: Phrases or responses that redirect the focus or impact of the compliment rear to the presenter. Such as “If you think it’s all right, please have some more.”

  • (2.7) Association: Phrases or responses that combine more than one of the amendment strategies mentioned above. Like “It was just okay. You also did a great job.” (Downgrade + Return)

• (3) Non-acceptance Strategies: Phrases or responses that refute, query, just about, or evade directly addressing the content of the compliment.

• (3.1) Disagreement: Phrases or responses that express disagreement with the compliment’s assertion or indicate that the compliment is undeserved or exaggerated. For instance, “No!”

• (3.1) Qualification: Phrases or responses that demonstrate a partial acceptance of the compliment by questioning the value being honored. Such as “Well, I think it was a bit drawn out.”

• (3.1) Diverge: Phrases or responses that challenge the impact of the compliment by suggesting alternative intentions or actions. For instance: “Stop making a joke of me.”

• (3.1) Association: Phrases or responses that combine multiple non-acceptance strategies mentioned above. Like: “I don’t think so You must be joking”.

• (4) Face Relationship-Related Response Strategies: Phrases or responses that neither accept, amend, nor reject the given compliment. These responses typically do not address the content of the compliment itself but rather focus on the occurrence of the compliment within the interaction. For example: “I’m embarrassed.”

• (5) Combination Strategies: There are instances in which the recipient’s responses to a compliment encompass a combination of two or more of the four main strategies outlined earlier. For instance: “Thank you! Did you genuinely think it was good?”

• (6) No Acknowledgment: Situations can arise in which the recipient of a compliment consciously decides not to provide a response or acknowledgment in return. (Yu, 2004)

4. Methodology

4.1. Research design

This study employed a mixed-methods approach to comprehensively investigate compliment response strategies among university students in Indonesia and Pakistan. The approach integrates both qualitative and quantitative methods to offer a holistic understanding of the subject matter. According to Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, mixed methods research refers to a category of studies in which the researcher integrates quantitative and qualitative research techniques, methodologies, approaches, concepts, or language into a single investigation (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). The primary objective and basic principle of mixed methods is that using both quantitative and qualitative methods in tandem may result in a more comprehensive understanding of research issues and complicated phenomena than each method by itself (Creswell & Clark, 2017).

4.2. Participants

The participants were 50 Indonesian and 50 Pakistani undergraduate students, which consisted of 25 males and 25 females from each country. For the sake of homogeneity and correct responses, all participants were specifically chosen from the English department in both countries. For the subjects, the study used a purposive sampling technique. According to Creswell, the success of this technique depends largely on the researcher’s selection of participants who satisfy certain requirements, and possess the desired knowledge, experiences, perspectives, or expertise that can contribute to the research study. According to the researchers, the individuals are not considered a representative sample of the population. Nevertheless, they offer beneficial data for responding to the researcher’s queries (Creswell & Creswell, 2017).

4.3. Selection criterion

4.3.1. Academic background

Participants were exclusively drawn from the English departments of Airlangga University in Surabaya, Indonesia, and the University of Swat, Pakistan. This criterion was chosen to ensure a consistent academic background relevant to the study’s focus on English language learners’ compliment response strategies within the context of higher education. By selecting participants from these departments, we aimed to enhance the relevance and specificity of our findings.

4.3.2. Academic year

Participants were chosen from different academic years, ranging from the 2nd year, 3rd semester, to the final year spanning 8 semesters. This criterion was established to capture a diverse range of linguistic proficiency and exposure to English language learning. By including students from various academic stages, we aimed to ensure a comprehensive representation of language learners’ experiences and developmental stages about compliment responses.

4.3.3. Age range

The age range of 18–24 years was chosen based on the typical age distribution of undergraduate students in both countries. This criterion ensured that participants were within the age bracket commonly associated with higher education, thus aligning with the study’s context and enhancing the relevance of our findings to university settings.

The chosen criteria for participant selection align closely with our research objectives. By focusing on English department students with diverse academic backgrounds, we aimed to capture responses from individuals with a shared interest in language learning, while also acknowledging potential variations due to cultural and linguistic factors. The selection of students from different academic years enables us to explore how linguistic proficiency and exposure to language learning impact compliment response strategies throughout higher education.

The age range criterion is consistent with the demographics of university students, ensuring that our findings are relevant to the target population. Moreover, by capturing participants within the 18–24 age range, we acknowledge the critical stage of personal and linguistic development during early adulthood, which is particularly pertinent to understanding the interplay of gender and power dynamics in language use.

4.4. Data collection techniques

The data in the current study was collected by Discourse Completion Tasks from both groups.

Discourse completion tasks refer to a series of activities in which participants are presented with scenarios where a compliment or a compliment response is deemed to be the appropriate next course of action (Golato, 2005). It was employed to gather the data because, according to Golato (2005), it enables the researcher to quickly capture vast amounts of data while accounting for specific characteristics and situational features. Furthermore, the use of discourse completion tasks allows for the assessment of participants’ culturally ideal perceptions and has been extensively employed in research on interlanguage and cross-cultural pragmatics. Given the aim of the present study to explore socially and culturally acceptable responses to compliments within both cultures, utilizing this method was deemed appropriate (Félix-Brasdefer, 2010). A questionnaire was designed in Google Forms. The questionnaire was split into two parts; demographic information and the situations of compliments that need to be answered. The first part consisted of personal information like age, education level, gender, and permission following their agreement to participate in the study. In the second part, there were 8 scenarios, 4 with the same social status and 4 with high social status. All the scenarios are teacher-student and friend-friend-based situations. Then, the questionnaire was distributed among the students. To collect the data in Indonesia, the researcher visited the faculty of the English Department and obtained consent from the dean of the faculty to distribute the questionnaire among students. In Pakistan, the scenario was a little bit different. The researcher did not collect the data by herself because she currently lives in Indonesia. A friend of the researcher who is a lecturer at the University of Swat in Pakistan, in the Department of English, collected the data from the students. The researcher shared the questionnaire with him through WhatsApp. Then, the lecturer distributed the questionnaire among undergraduate students in the English Department.

Ethical considerations were paramount in this study. Before data collection, ethical approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Boards of both universities. Informed consent was acquired from each participant, outlining the study’s purpose, data collection methods, confidentiality measures, and the voluntary nature of participation. Participants were informed that their responses would be anonymized and used solely for research purposes.

4.5. Questionnaire development

The questionnaire was carefully crafted by the researchers to ensure its alignment with the study’s research objectives and to capture the specific nuances of compliment responses within the Indonesian and Pakistani cultural contexts. Drawing from the extensive literature on compliment response strategies, including taxonomies proposed by researchers such as Yu (2004), Herbert1989 (), and Holmes (1988), the research team carefully designed scenarios that reflect real-life situations where compliment responses are typically employed. The formulation of the questionnaire items underwent multiple rounds of review and refinement to ensure clarity, cultural sensitivity, and relevance to the target participants.

4.6. Questionnaire validation

Recognizing the importance of validating the questionnaire, the researchers conducted a thorough validation process to ensure its robustness and appropriateness. While the questionnaire was designed based on established taxonomies and research in the field of compliment responses, it was crucial to validate its suitability for the specific context of this study.

The validation process involved several key steps:

4.6.1. Content Validity

The initial draft of the questionnaire was reviewed by experts in the fields of linguistics, cross-cultural communication, and pragmatics who are professors in each university respectively. Their valuable feedback and insights helped refine the questionnaire items to ensure their alignment with the research objectives and cultural contexts.

4.6.2. Pilot Study

To assess the clarity and comprehensibility of the questionnaire, a pilot study was conducted with a small group of English department students who did not participate in the main study at Airlangga University. The pilot participants provided feedback on the questionnaire’s clarity, relevance, and appropriateness of the scenarios. Based on their input, minor adjustments were made to enhance the questionnaire’s clarity.

4.6.3. Expert Review

Following the pilot study, the questionnaire was again reviewed by experts in the field, incorporating feedback from the pilot participants. This iterative process ensured that the questionnaire items accurately represented the intended constructs and cultural contexts.

4.7. Data analysis and coding scheme

Following the data collection process, the responses received were categorized into six distinct compliment response strategies based on the comprehensive taxonomy proposed by Yu (Yu, 2004). This coding scheme offers a more comprehensive and nuanced approach compared to earlier frameworks such as Holmes (1986) and Herbert (1989). Yu’s taxonomy includes six main types of compliment responses, each further divided into subcategories. To ensure the validity and reliability of the coding process, the formulated categorization was reviewed by two professors specializing in English literature and linguistics in Indonesia and Pakistan. The analysis of the data employed both qualitative and quantitative methods. Qualitative analysis was conducted to identify the specific compliment response strategies employed by participants, utilizing Yu’s classification system. The quantitative analysis involved descriptive statistics to determine the percentage distribution of each compliment response strategy employed by the students. This combined approach enabled us to capture both the qualitative nuances and quantitative prevalence of compliment responses.

5. Findings

In this analysis of the compliment responses, the researcher presents their findings based on the study’s objective, which sought to determine the gender and power dynamics in compliment responses among university students in Indonesia and Pakistan. The study was conducted through the distribution of a discourse completion task-designed questionnaire to the undergraduate students of English Literature and Linguistics from various semesters across the universities in Indonesia and Pakistan. The findings were generated from the analyzed responses and are presented in the form of tables, frequencies, and percentages. The responses were obtained from undergraduate students of English Literature and Linguistics, providing an inclusive overview of the understanding of compliment and compliment responses. The data were analyzed in three categories: overall statistics of the responses, analysis of the data based on gender, and analysis of the data based on power dynamics. The compliment responses were divided into six categories according to Yu’s (2004) compliment response strategies. The discourse within each of these three sections aimed to address the three initial research inquiries posited at the onset of the study.

5.1. The overall exploration of compliment response strategies used by Indonesian and Pakistani students

A total of 120 participants contributed to the study. After cleaning the data, the responses of 100 participants were analyzed. The questionnaire consisted of 8 various scenario-based questions, so each participant responded to a total of 8 responses. The total number of reactions received from the participants is 800. 50–50 students from each country, i.e. Indonesia and Pakistan participated with an equal distribution of 25 males and 25 females from each country. As the primary aim of the 1^st research problem, Table 1 below displays the compliment response strategies used by both Indonesian and Pakistani students.

Table 1. The overall distributions of CRs among students

	Indonesia		Pakistan		Total Count
CRSs	Frequency	Percentage (%)	Frequency	Percentage (%)	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Acceptance	245	61.25	262	65.5	507	63.375
Combination	88	22	26	6.5	114	14.25
Amendment	48	12	41	10.25	89	11.125
Non Acceptance	11	2.75	41	10.25	52	6.5
Face Relationship	7	1.75	4	1	11	1.375
No Acknowledgment	1	0.25	26	6.5	27	3.375
Total	400	100.00	400	100.00	800	100.00

The first three most commonly employed compliment response strategies are “Acceptance” (507), “Combination” (114), and “Amendment” (89) with a percentage of 63.37%, 14.25%, and 11.12% respectively as shown in Table 1. Acceptance (52), no acknowledgment (27), and face relationship (11) are the least used compliment response strategies employed by the students in both countries with a percentage of 6.5%, 3.375%, and 1.375 respectively as shown in Table 1.

5.2. Gender-based analysis of compliment responses

In the current investigation, the 2^nd research issue concerning the influence of gender was also investigated. A comparative analysis was conducted to examine the responses of boys and girls toward the usage of compliment response strategies. Tables 2 and 3 illustrates the distribution of compliment responses based on gender across the students in both countries Indonesia and Pakistan.

Table 2. Compliment response strategies used across genders by Indonesian students

Indonesia	Males		Females		Total Count
CRSs	Frequency	Percentage (%)	Frequency	Percentage (%)	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Acceptance	127	63.5	118	59	245	61.25
Combination	38	19	50	25	88	22
Amendment	18	9	30	15	48	12
Non Acceptance	9	4.5	2	1	11	2.75
Face Relationship	7	3.5	0	0	7	1.75
No Acknowledgment	1	0.5	0	0	1	0.25
Total	200	100.00	200	100.00	400	100.00

Table 3. Compliment response strategies used across gender by Pakistani students

Pakistan	Males		Females		Total Count
CRSs	Frequency	Percentage (%)	Frequency	Percentage (%)	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Acceptance	105	52.5	157	78.5	262	65.5
Combination	8	4	18	9	18	6.5
Amendment	27	13.5	14	7	41	10.25
Non Acceptance	38	19	3	1.5	41	10.25
Face Relationship	0	0	4	2	4	1
No Acknowledgment	22	11	4	2	26	6.5
Total	200	100.00	200	100.00	400	100.00

As shown in Tables 2 and 3, acceptance is one of the most employed compliment response strategies by Indonesian and Pakistani students. Both males and females are using acceptance more than any other strategy in both countries. The overall percentage of acceptance strategy among Indonesian students is 61.25% which is less than in comparison to the percentage of Pakistani students which is 65.5%. Interestingly, among Indonesians, male students used more acceptance (127) strategy with a percentage of 63.5, while in Pakistan, female students used more acceptance strategy (157) with a percentage of 78.9 respectively. Among Indonesian students, combination (88) and amendment (48) are the 2^nd and 3^rd most employed compliment response strategies with a percentage of 22% and 12% respectively. No acceptance (11), face relationship (7), and no acknowledgment (1) with a percentage of 2.75%, 1.75%, and 0.25% respectively. Indonesian female students are using more combination (50), and amendment (30) strategies than male students who use a combination (38), and amendment (18). No acceptance was used by males (9) times while by girls only (2) times. Face relationship and no acknowledgment are the least strategies used by males (7) and (1) while not used by Indonesian female students at all. In the Pakistan context, females used more acceptance (157) strategy than males (105). Pakistani male students used more amendment (27), no acceptance (38), and no acknowledgment (22) than Pakistani female students. Face relationship (0) and combination (8) are the least strategies used by males while females used face relationship (4) combination (18) and amendment (14) as the second most used strategies.

5.3. Power dynamics analysis of compliment responses

The analysis of compliment response (CR) strategies also considered the individuals’ power status, which was the center of attention of the third research problem. The objective was to ascertain the specific compliment response strategies employed about different power statuses and their respective frequencies. The study utilized the Discourse Completion Test (DCT), which encompassed two power statuses: -P (asymmetric power) and =P (equal power). The compliment response strategies utilized within these two power positions were recognized and presented in Tables 4, 5 , 6 and 7. This enabled a comprehensive understanding of the diverse strategies employed in different power dynamics. Tables 4 and 5 represent the analyzed responses of compliments of Indonesian male and female students concerning power dynamics while Tables 6 and 7 present the findings of Pakistani male and female students.

Table 4. CRS used by gender for asymmetrical position among Indonesian students

	- Power	Speaker <Hearer	Situation	1, 3, 5,7
Indonesia	Males		Females		Total Count
CRSs	Frequency	Percentage (%)	Frequency	Percentage (%)	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Acceptance	72	72	68	68	140	70
Combination	15	15	28	28	43	21.5
Amendment	6	6	4	4	10	5
Non Acceptance	3	3	0	0	3	1.5
Face Relationship	3	3	0	0	3	1.5
No Acknowledgment	1	1	0	0	1	0.5
Total	100	1.00	100	100.00	200	100.00

Table 5. CRS used by gender for equivalent position among Indonesian students

	= Power	Speaker =Hearer	Situation	2, 4, 6,8
Indonesia	Males		Females		Total Count
CRSs	Frequency	Percentage (%)	Frequency	Percentage (%)	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Acceptance	55	55	50	50	105	52.5
Combination	23	23	22	22	45	22.5
Amendment	12	12	26	26	38	19
Non Acceptance	6	6	2	2	8	4
Face Relationship	4	4	0	0	4	2
No Acknowledgment	0	0	0	0	0	0
Total	100	1.00	200	100.00	200	100.00

Table 6. CRS used by gender for asymmetrical position among Pakistani students

	- Power	Speaker <Hearer	Situation	1, 3, 5,7
Pakistan	Males		Females		Total Count
CRSs	Frequency	Percentage (%)	Frequency	Percentage (%)	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Acceptance	50	50	82	82	132	66
Combination	5	5	9	9	14	7
Amendment	14	14	5	5	19	9.5
Non Acceptance	20	20	0	0	20	10
Face Relationship	0	0	2	2	2	1
No Acknowledgment	11	11	2	2	13	6.5
Total	100	1.00	100	100.00	200	100.00

Table 7. CRS used by gender for equivalent position among Pakistani students

	= Power	Speaker =Hearer	Situation	2, 4, 6,8
Pakistan	Males		Females		Total Count
CRSs	Frequency	Percentage (%)	Frequency	Percentage (%)	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Acceptance	55	55	75	75	130	65
Combination	3	3	9	9	12	6
Amendment	13	13	9	9	22	11
Non Acceptance	18	18	3	3	21	10.5
Face Relationship	0	0	2	2	2	1
No Acknowledgment	11	11	2	2	13	6.5
Total	100	1.00	100	100.00	200	100.00

Tables 4 and 5 represent the findings of the responses used across genders with unequal power and equal power status among Indonesian students. In both situations—P and = P, acceptance (140, 105) is the most used strategy by males and females. Male students used more acceptance (-P 72, = P 55) strategy than female acceptance (-P 68, =P 50) in both equal and unequal power situations. Combination (43, 45) is the second most used strategy by males and females in both—P and +P situations. Amendment (5, 19), no acceptance (1.5, 4), face relationship (1.5, 2), and no acknowledgment (0.5, 0) are the least used strategies by Indonesian students in both equal and unequal situations as shown in Tables 4 and 5.

Tables 6 and 7 represent the findings of the responses used across genders with unequal power and equal power status among Pakistani students. In both situations—P and = P, acceptance (130, 132) is the utmost employed strategy by boys and girls. Female students used more acceptance (- P 82, = P 75) strategy than male acceptance (-P 50, =P 55) in both equal and unequal power situations. Pakistani male students used more no acceptance strategy in both situations (- P 20, = P 18) while in females it is the least used or not used at all strategy, – P (0) and = P (3). Combination (- P 9, = P 9) is the second most used strategy by females in both situations while amendment (-P 14, = P 13) is the third most used strategy by males. Males also used the no acknowledgment (-P 11, =P 11) strategy in both situations with high frequency while girls used it less—P (2) and = P (2). Face relationship is the least strategy used by both boys and girls as presented in Tables 6 and 7.

6. Discussion

In the current study, we examined the compliment response (CR) strategies employed by Indonesian and Pakistani university students, with a specific emphasis on gender and power dynamics. The findings shed light on the nuanced patterns and variations observed within these cultural contexts. It is crucial to discuss the main findings and provide a concise summary of the key results obtained from the data analysis. In the overall analysis of the data between the two countries, the findings showed that Acceptance (63.37%), Combination (14.25%), and Amendment (11.25%) are the top most often employed compliment response techniques. No Acceptance (6.5%), No acknowledgment (3.37%), and Face relationship (1.37%) are the least used strategies. In general, these results are consistent with earlier explorations in that both girls and boys participants favored accepting compliments over employing non-acceptance techniques (Al-Rousan & Awal, 2016, Al-Shboul et al., 2022; Alqarni, 2017; Nur Indah, 2017; Tamimi Sa’d, 2015; Yu, 2004; Zhao, 2013). All these studies revealed that acceptance is one of the most compliment response strategies by students everywhere. All these researchers have analyzed the data taken from different social backgrounds and cultures like China, Iran, Jordan, Indonesia, and many more. As we are comparing the cultures of two different countries, there are some variances in the usage of these strategies. Both Pakistani and Indonesian students are using acceptance the most with a percentage of 61.25% in Indonesia, and 65.5% in Pakistan. Combination with a percentage of 22% is the second most used strategy of Indonesian students while amendment and no acceptance are the second most used strategies in Pakistani students with a percentage of 10.25% respectively. In Indonesian students, no acknowledgment with a percentage of 0.25 is the least used strategy while in the Pakistani context, it is the third most used strategy with a percentage of 6.5%. These differences are elaborated on in the next sections.

6.1. Gender-based differences

The analysis revealed notable gender-based differences in compliment responses among the participants. In both countries, female students tended to employ more indirect and modest responses, reflecting societal expectations of modesty and humility. Holmes researched the compliments as practiced by men and women New Zealanders. The researcher suggested three categories of compliment response strategies in her analysis: accept, reject, and deflect or evade. Compared to women, men were more likely to dismiss or purposefully avoid a compliment. The findings showed no gender variances in the overall replies to the rejection of praise (Holmes, 1988). In contrast, male students exhibited a greater tendency to utilize direct and assertive responses. These differences highlight the influence of gender norms and expectations on communication behaviors, emphasizing the importance of considering gender dynamics in intercultural interactions. There are some variances in the usage of compliment responses crosswise genders in the two countries. Generally, Indonesian males and females are using more acceptance (male 127, female 118) amendment (male 18, female 30) and combination (male 38, female 50) strategies while using less no acceptance (male 9, female 2), face relationship (male 7, female 0) and no acknowledgment (male 1, female 0) strategies. The current investigation showed that both sexes were inclined to accept compliments more often than they did to contest or question them which is similar to the results of Sa’d (Tamimi Sa’d, 2015). On the contrary side, Pakistani students are using acceptance (male 105, female 157) amendment (male 27, female 14), and combination (male 8, female 18) strategies but male students are using more no acceptance (male 38, female 3), no acknowledgment (male 22, female 4) and face relationship (male 0, female 4) strategies than Pakistani females and Indonesian males and females. The findings show a similar result as of Al-Qahtani who presented that men are more to disagreement and no acceptance strategies (Al-Qahtani, 2009). The results of our study are similar to that of Wang and Tsai’s research, in their findings they found that male Taiwanese students employed more refusals while responding to compliments. On the contrary, their female counterparts tended to employ queries that expressed astonishment (Wang & Tsai, 2003). The difference is not only between the countries but also in gender inside the country. Gender roles and socialization processes play an important role in communication styles. In both Indonesia and Pakistan, traditional gender roles influence how males and females respond to compliments. Pakistan is still a patriarchal society that prioritizes men over women. In Pakistan, males adhere to masculine norms of assertiveness and self-confidence, leading them to use fewer acceptance and amendment strategies. Females, on the other hand, tend to exhibit modesty and deference, resulting in higher usage of acceptance and combination strategies. A similar study carried out by Yousefvand examined 30 male and female undergraduate students from two Iranian universities. Findings revealed that Persian speakers typically agreed with a compliment, which inclined to indicate their deeply ingrained diffidence. Gender had a significant impact on compliment responses as well. Females tended to react to a compliment with acceptance or surprise, whereas boys were more inclined to evade a compliment by adopting prescribed emotions and ascending down the established compliments (Yousefvand, 2010). Language and communication styles are specific to each culture and can influence the choice of compliment response strategies. The linguistic conventions and norms of politeness within each culture may shape the strategies employed. Further research exploring linguistic and cultural nuances in compliment responses could provide deeper insights into these differences. Our study is contrary to the findings of Yasser Al-Shboul. et. The results revealed that males showed a preference for acceptance, combination, and amendment strategies, with no acknowledgment, no acceptance, and face relationship-related response strategies being the least commonly produced (Al-Shboul et al., 2022). Our results showed that Pakistani males have showing preference for no acceptance, no acknowledgment, and face relationship strategies.

To provide a justifiable explanation for the gender disparities in speech acts between males and females, sociolinguists have turned their attention to the relationship between language and gender. Gender is seen as the primary component accounting for speech diversity (Aries & Johnson, 1983; Holmes & Wilson, 2022). This research offers various perspectives on these variations. One of the most popular theories holds that gender inequalities in language behavior are caused by the fact that males are seen as the dominant group in any speech community. Additionally, the disparities between the compliment response strategies created by the male and female students could be attributed to the psychological differences between men and women, including their perceptions, emotions, interests, personalities, characters, abilities, and attitudes toward individuals of different social standing or power. Therefore, these differences are more likely to represent verbal communication style and have a significant influence on how men and women use language (Zhao, 2013).

6.2. Power dynamics

Another significant aspect explored in this study was the impact of power dynamics on compliment responses. The findings of the data revealed distinctive patterns in CR strategies based on power status. The participants’ frequent use of combination and acceptance techniques for both power statuses about the power relationship demonstrates their acceptance of complements rather than their rejection of them. The findings are similar to the existing literature on the phenomena (Al-Shboul et al., 2022; Alqarni, 2017; Suteerapongsit, 2020; Zhao, 2013) which discovered that the two most common CRSs were acceptance and combination.

In situations where the speaker held a lower power position (−Power), individuals demonstrated a higher inclination towards employing deferential and respectful responses such as acceptance, combination, and amendment. In situations, where the speaker and hearer held an equal position (= P), students used more no acceptance, no acknowledgment strategies. These findings as shown in Tables 4, 5 6, and 7 underscore the influence of power differentials in shaping communication behaviors and highlight the complex interplay between power dynamics and compliment responses. In both countries, students used more acceptance strategies in both equal and unequal situations. The difference is in the usage of no acceptance and no acknowledgment strategies in Pakistani male students who used these strategies with high frequency. Power dynamics and social hierarchies play an important role in shaping compliment response strategies. In Pakistan, where hierarchical structures are more pronounced, males are more inclined to utilize no acceptance and no acknowledgment strategies as a way to assert dominance and maintain social distance. In contrast, Indonesian males and females employ more acceptance and amendment strategies, reflecting the importance of preserving face and maintaining positive social relationships. Cultural norms and expectations play a significant role in shaping communication behaviors and compliment response strategies. Participants from both Indonesia and Pakistan exhibited cultural-specific norms and values in their responses. For instance, collectivist cultural orientations were reflected in the emphasis on communal harmony and humility in Indonesian students’ responses. Pakistani students, on the other hand, demonstrated the influence of Islamic values, such as respect for authority and adherence to modesty. These cultural nuances underscore the significance of understanding the cultural context in interpreting and analyzing compliment responses.

7. Conclusion

The current study has provided valuable insights into the compliment response strategies employed by Indonesian and Pakistani university students, focusing on the impact of gender and power dynamics. The findings highlight distinct differences between the two cultures and across gender lines. Indonesian males and females tend to utilize more acceptance and amendment strategies while employing fewer no acceptance, face relationship, and no acknowledgment strategies. Conversely, Pakistani students, especially males, exhibit a higher propensity for no acceptance and no acknowledgment strategies, alongside the use of acceptance and amendment strategies. These differences can be attributed to cultural norms and expectations, gender roles and socialization, power dynamics, and language and communication styles.

These findings have important implications for intercultural communication, emphasizing the need to understand and respect diverse cultural norms and gender dynamics when engaging in cross-cultural interactions. Recognizing the role of power dynamics and language in compliment responses enhances our comprehension of communication patterns and promotes effective intercultural exchanges. Ultimately, understanding and navigating the intricacies of compliment responses contribute to fostering positive intercultural relationships, reducing misunderstandings, and promoting mutual respect and effective communication across diverse cultures.

It is important to acknowledge the limitations of this study. The research was conducted with a specific focus on university undergraduate students majoring in English literature and Linguistics in Indonesia and Pakistan, and the findings may not be generalized to the entire population or individuals from different age groups or social backgrounds. Future research could expand the scope to include a more diverse sample and investigate additional cultural factors that influence compliment responses.

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No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the The authors received no direct funding for this this research paper.

Notes on contributors

Fariha Bibi

Fariha Bibi is a master's student of English linguistics in the Department of Humanities and Cultural Studies at the University of Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia. Fariha is interested in the field of cross-cultural pragmatics, sociolinguistics, digital culture, multilingualism, and multiculturalism.

Ni Wayan Sartini

Ni Wayan Sartini is a lecturer at Indonesian Department of Under Graduates Program and Master of Linguistics Program, Faculty of Humanities Universitas Airlangga. Her research interest includes ethnolinguistic, cross cultural pragmatic, linguistic lanskap, and discourse analysis.