Garuda myth-based toponym as a portrait of Indonesian cultural activities in the Solon years

Abstract

Name-giving is vital in Indonesian culture. Names of places, oftentimes bestowed by the king, are often associated with the mythology and culture of those residing around the area. Many regional names in Indonesia are associated with King Garuda mythology, manifesting a declaration of the power network. Through an analysis of the results of interviews with site keepers, community leaders, and academician, and observation, this study aims to portray the link between the toponyms and King Garuda mythology. This critical anthropology study brings forward the urgency to develop a complete and accurate cultural narrative related to King Garuda to be developed for educational purposes as well as for the tourism industry. Territorial toponyms highlighted the need for an in-depth study, especially as the catalyst for maintaining national integrity against separatist actions. Indonesia’s ancient heritage requires further investigation with the support of technology, such as isotope layer testing, which future studies need to cover.

Keywords:

• King Garuda
• regional toponym
• cultural narrative
• critical anthropology
• Solon year

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Samuel Adu-Gyamfi, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology College of Arts and Social Science, GHANA

SUBJECTS:

• History; Archaeology; Cultural Studies

Introduction

Name-giving is a crucial part of Indonesian culture. Naming a newborn baby, a country, and an area merits a celebration. The name-giving is often accompanied by selametan, a communal feast to pray for the name giving, with local residents. Meanwhile, the names of the members of Javanese royal families were given by the king (Puspaningrat, 2006). Name-giving of a country along with its establishment is under an absolute control of a king with a royal advisor or traditional leader advice. The names of important villages in the era of ancient kingdom were recorded in the state documents (Rangkuti, 2014; Purwaningsih et al., 2018), showing its utmost importance.

However, not all Indonesians are familiar with the naming procedures. This lack of awareness concerning toponymy, the taxonomic study of names of places (Ong & Perono Cacciafoco, 2022), may pose a threat to the sustainability of Indonesian culture. This issue highlights the urgency to preserve the name-giving traditions rooted in the Indonesian culture. Such activities include research and revitalisation of toponymy in Indonesia. The results of such activities can be utilised to further promote cultural tourism in Indonesia such as those already in place in England (Hendrix, 2009), the United States of America (Melton, 2002), and Australia (Yiannakis & Davies, 2012). This study focuses on investigating the chronicle of the toponymy of Indonesian geographical areas in Java Island, Indonesia, and some other areas as linked to the mythology of King Garuda.

Toponymy in Javanese culture

A chronicle of toponymy in Java has been widely recorded in the literature. In 1365, Empu Prapanca wrote a chronicle of village names in East Java in Desawarnana book (Salindri, 2019). However, some village names are difficult to identify because they have significantly changed. In 1511, Bujangga Manik from Pakuan Pajajaran kingdom wrote a chronicle of his journey to Java-Bali (Setiawan, 2012). He noted the ports, villages, rivers, mountains in both islands, and the names of the islands as seen from the peak of Mount Papandayan. In 1814, Raffles noted that the name of the island of Java came from Jawawut (Raffles, 2014), a type of wheat. Raffles noted that Java was also called Nusa Hara-hara or Nusa Kendang, but he did not explain the meaning.

In 1960, Geertz (2014) studied the village of Modjokutho in Kediri. He reported on the anthropological studies of the social and religious life of Javanese people in Modjokutho. The name Mojokutho has changed to Mojo in Kediri, East Java. Christie (1964) reported on a sociological study of the Kamal-Pandak area in Java which was granted autonomy by King Airlangga of Kahuripan kingdom in 1009–1222 AD. Kamal-Pandak area is located in the Lodoyo-Blitar and Tulungagung areas, East Java.

Nusarini (2015) reported on a toponymy study at Sleman, Yogyakarta with a linguistic approach. Ong and Perono Cacciafoco (2022) argues that many of the toponyms are considered ‘linguistic fossils’ and have been part of the civilization for a great amount of time. The names of regions in Sleman Disctrict were given based on the natural elements, natural conditions, expectations, and historical backgrounds. The name of the region changed due to variations in the pronunciation of the language sounds. Muhyidin (2017) also reported an anthropolinguistic study of the name of the PandegElang region. Toponym in PandegElang was created with elements of ci- (water), kadu (durian), and pasir (hill) which describe the geographical and cultural properties of Sunda.

Studies on toponymy employing linguistic, sociological, ethnographic, historical, and anthropolinguistic approaches have highlighted a gap. The target area, problem coverage, and temporal context of the research are limited to Saka year, the year believed to start from A.D. 78 (Fleet, 1910), while those concerning Solon year (494 B.C -3 AD, Miller, 1969) lack in-depth investigation. In the perspective of critical discourse studies (van Dijk, 2015) the naming of the region can be interpreted as power hegemony. Therefore, to unravel the power hegemony, studies delving into toponymy in Indonesia need to bring Solon year into focus.

Koswara and Hermawan (2021) reported on a study of Sundanese toponymy in the Carita Pantun Sanghyang Jagatrasa text with a semiotic approach. Ancient texts mentioned universal toponymy related to the underworld, middle, and upper in Sundanese cosmology. Seas, rivers, and forests are all symbols of the dangerous underworld. Mount Mandala Datar as a symbol of the middle world. Mandalagiri Hermitage is known as the symbol of the sacred upper world. Sundanese cosmology views the lower, middle, and upper worlds as a unity in human life. This study embraces an in-depth analysis, in that it scrutinises the under-researched symbol of time elements in anthroponymy and toponymy. Some of the examples included (a) Prince Suryaparat as a symbol of the year of Light, (b) Rahyang Niskala and Bumi Panisan as symbols of Nisan, (c) Garuda, Naga Wulung, and Singo Barong as symbols of the year of Solon, and (d) Prophet Muhammad as a symbol of Saka year and year of migration.

To identify the creation of toponym, chronogram analysis was called upon to deduce meaning out of the analysis objects. The chronogram contains elements of the year, message, and perpetrators of events in secret. The code on the building chronogram is located in the form of the building called candrasengkala (Macaryus, 2007; Daliman, 2012). The year code for a chronogram refers to the start of the building, not the completion of construction. In Indonesian culture, chronograms function as plans or blueprints for royal buildings (Daliman, 2012) and as historical records (Sastrawan, 2016). One example is the chronogram on the blueprint of the Mataram palace in Yogyakarta. The tradition of chronograms also prevails in Urdu culture (Farooqi, 2003).

The chronogram year, referring to Pre-Saka time is read according to the candrasengkala sentence (not reversed). The first word refers to the number in the thousands; the second word refers to the hundreds digit; the third word refers to the tens number, and the fourth word refers to the single digit in the year number. For example, ‘Selo (1) Singo (8) Adimaya (6) Amiluhur (0)’ refer to 1860 in Pra Saka (PS) or 1582 BC. This chronogram contains the message that the King Singa Adimaya ascended the throne (amiluhur) in the Adimaya (Malay) dynasty. The building in question is a stone picturing a lion running on Mount Sumbing, Central Java.

With regard to naming regions, Indonesian people have four awareness of time. In forward count, the four eras include the year of Light, the year of Nisan, the year of Sura, and the year of Saka (Soekemi, an expert in Javanese year calculation, Interview, 2019). One period is 9999 years old. The year count stops at 9999 because the number 9 in a row is the highest number in the chronogram year. The chronogram with more than four digits is difficult to decipher the years and their associated messages. Due to limited space, the following review is limited to the year of Sura.

Before the current Saka year began, the Sura year had taken effect. The Sura year was contemporaneous with the Solon year in Athenian (old Roman) culture. Sagstetter (2013) reported that in Athenian culture there is a myth of King Solon which describes the cultures existing in the year BC. Sukatman (2017) reported the Mayan culture in the Lawa cave, Trenggalek city, which describes the Mayan culture in disguise (maya). The Mayans were led by the King Garuda Sura, symbolised by the eagle’s head. The word ‘Sura’ in the king’s name indicates that the Mayan culture was developed in the Sura year.

Towards the end of the year Sura, ancient Malay culture started to grow, during the reign of King Singa Melayu. The King in Borneo is known as Dahyang Rakai Singa Laju or Dayak Ngaju (Liadi and HIrliani, 2020). The reign of King Singa Melayu was continued by King Mahesa Maya and Lembu Maya (Sukatman, 2019). The existence of ancient Malay culture is confirmed by the excavation of the Kalilembu culture in Banyuwangi which initiated around 1700 BC (Tim, 1987; Tim, 2008; Tim, 2009). Ancient Malay culture ended in 1 Saka or 79 AD (Sukatman and Taufik, 2017) and it goes on to the current Saka year calendar. Saka calendar is less popular, as now Indonesia attends to the Gregorian calendar. 

Research methodology

Employing critical ethnographic approach, this study aimed to explore the cultural aspects in the region naming tradition (Lather in Atkinson, et al., 2001). We embraced mythology, oral traditions, archeology, chronograms, and critical discourse analysis. Research data were collected using in-depth interviews with 11 (eleven) informants some of whom were site keepers, academician, and community leaders having significant information regarding the issue from West, Central, and East Java, Bali, Sumatra, Celebes, Borneo, Papua, Thailand, and Malaysia and using participant observation at megalithic sites to identify the chronograms. The data pertained to the folklore about King Garuda, wayang stories, regional names, names of ancient Indonesian buildings related to Garuda, and stories of saints in Hindu, Christian, and Islamic scriptures. The analysis of the region names based on the Garuda myth was grounded in the context of ancient Indonesian culture in the Solon (Pre-Saka) year.

Data analysis was carried out using critical discourse analysis (van Dijk, 2015). To describe the identity of King Garuda, a microstructure analysis was performed with a focus on (a) the mythological aspects of the regional names, (b) region toponym related to King Garuda, and (c) ancient buildings chronograms related to King Garuda. Macro structure analysis was focused on the hegemony of King Garuda’s power, focusing on (a) dynastic identity, (b) declaration of territory, (b) time and state events, (c) power network, (d) religious network, and (e) contribution to national defense.

We used the instruments to analyse of the hegemony of the power of the King Garuda, coupled with the cultural analysis on the connection between the Garuda myth and the toponymy tradition, and analysis guideline to identify the contribution of toponym to national defense. The guideline followed Spradley (1980), with some modifications to meet the research context. We contextualised our research data by consulting cultural actors, cultural experts, chronogram experts, and linguists.

Research findings

Toponyms, oral stories, and chronograms of megalithic buildings portrayed the events and culture of the Sura year related to King Garuda. The Sura year in the ancient Roman culture (Athens) was known as the year of Solon. This study reported on the results of interviews with 11 (eleven) informants some of whom were site keepers, academician, and community leaders having significant information regarding the issue from West, Central, and East Java, Bali, Sumatra, Celebes, Borneo, and Papua, Thailand, and Malaysia as well as observations on the sites.This section is organised under these following headings: (a) the myth of Garuda as the inspiration for toponymy, (b) declaration of the territory of King Garuda in Java, (c) toponymy as a network of power, (d) toponymy of megalithic buildings as a network of power, (e) toponymy of buildings megalithic as a religious network, and (f) toponymy contribution to national defence.

Garuda as the inspiration for toponymy in Indonesia

The myth of Garuda becomes known to public from wayang performances. This sacred story reveals the struggle of King Garuda to free his country from the slavery of Naga dynasty, the brother to King Garuda. King Garuda is known as Garudeya. The word Garudeya originated from the toponym Garuda hyang, meaning Grandfather of Garuda. Garuda story has prevailed among Indonesian, especially because the elders inherited the Garuda story from generation to generation.

To date, there has been no attempt to investigate whether the story is fictional or historical, but Javanese community knows that the story is laden with cultural knowledge. They refer to myths as a source of knowledge (Ong, 1983) about the archipelago in the past. From the lens of critical discourse (van Dijk, 2015), Garuda can be interpreted as a symbol of a dynasty, regional ruler, spiritual movement figure, or a symbol of cultural politics. What follows is the short story which portrays Garuda. In the hermitage, Resi Kasyapa lived with his two wives, Dewi Winata and Dewi Kadru. These women were sisters but they always vied for her husband’s attention. His two wives were restless because they had no sons (the National Library of Indonesia, 2019).

Dewi Winata and Dewi Kadru met a God who presented them with an egg for each. The God ordered the two of them to take a good care of the eggs. Dewi Winata and Dewi Kadru kept the eggs safe. One day Dewi Winata’s egg hatched and a bird was born. Dewi Kadru’s egg hatched and several snakes were born. The two women took a good care of their children. Dewi Winata’s child grew into a bird named Garudeya. Dewi Kadru’s children grew into dragons. Rishi Kasyapa’s two wives continued to compete. One day, they settled a gamble. Dewi Kadru won because of her trick. After losing, Dewi Winata became a slave to Dewi Kadru and her children. Garudeya was very sad to see his mother suffer. As an adult, Garudeya tried to free his mother from slavery (the National Library of Indonesia, 2019).

Garudeya knew that his mother could be freed with a ransom of holy water Tirta Amerta in heaven which was guarded by Lord Vishnu. Albeit struggling so hard, Garudeya succeeded in taking Tirta Amerta. The water was given by Lord Vishnu. However, Garudeya had to be his servant. Finally, Garudeya was able to free his mother. Since then, Garudeya became a servant of Lord Vishnu (the National Library of Indonesia, 2019).

According to Isnandar (Interview, 2019), Resi Kasyapa was also known as Raja Bango Agung or King Bango. The name Kasyapa or Kasapa came from the toponym of rakai angsa pertapa. The hermit King Bango was called a sage. King Bango in the archipelago was marked by region names (a) Rawa Bango in Cianjur, (b) Mount Banyak in Malang, and (c) Candi Bango in Prambanan, Yogyakarta. Banyak (goose) is a large crane depiction as a symbol of the Great Crane King. The stork and swan are symbols of Resi Kasapa, the father of King Garuda.

In Javanese tradition there is a story about Garuda, which liked to perch on a big tree. People call it gurda tree (Boniyem, Interview, 2019). King Garuda was commemorised by the Garuda Temple building in Prambanan, Yogyakarta. King Garuda or King Elang became the inspiration for the names of the Gurdo (garudo) region in Ngawi, East Java, Mount Malang (Manuk Elang) in Bogor, West Java, MagElang (Manuk Ageng Elang) in Central Java, and PandegElang (Pandega Elang) in Banten.

Jaranan Senterewe, a dance in Banyuwangi, contains a story of King Garuda (Observation, 2018). In the dance there are many images of sacred animals: (a) a crowned Garuda flying high around the earth, (b) a rooster with a crown dancing around in a luminous outfit, (c) The crowned dragon circling the earth. (d) Aalarge winged lion moving around the earth, (e) The king Buffalo and Ox dance with charisma, (f) Giants circling the earth. To Banyuwangi community, elders and Javanese people outside Banyuwangi, Jaranan Senterewe describes King Garuda and his successors in the archipelago.

The story of Garuda exists in Indonesian oral tradition. In wayang purwa show, Garuda becomes an important figure (Observation, 2018). Garuda adorned most temple reliefs and dances in Java. Garuda became the inspiration for regions. Thus, Garuda myth serves as a medium of cultural politics.

The declaration of territories under King Garuda in Java Island

King Garuda is reflected in the toponym of regions in Indonesia. Toponyms with the initials elang, garudo, dadali, alap-alap, and wulung are found in and outside Java. Different names referring to the same figure are called dasanama (Winter, 1875). The toponym reflects the sociohistorical of King Garuda in Indonesia. This is in line with Chaika (1982), who contends that language reflects the social reality of its users.

The name Garuda has different origins, such as Grudo, Gurdo, and Gudo. These changes occur due to the principle of ease of speech in language (Anderson, 2000), also because of language attrition (Park, 2018) in different times and generations. According to cognitive stylistics (Semino, 2002), similar dictions in naming regions indicate the same perpetrator to a particular action or deed. The naming manifests the declaration of power by King Garuda.

In Banten, there is a region named Pandeglang. The word Pandegelang comes from the toponym Pandega Elang which means the leader of eagles (Junaidi, Interview, 2019). Junaidi further explains that the name Mount Salak comes from toponin Salaka, meaning Batu Intan (diamond). It is associated with the name Banten, originating from the toponym of diamond. The names of Pendegelang, Banten, and Salaka are associated with King Garuda, known as the King of Batu Intan.

Meanwhile, regarding the region Padalarang, Junaidi (Interview, 2019) explained that it comes from the toponym Pandala king Elang to signify spiritual center (mandala) of the King Garuda. This interpretation is reinforced by the existence of Mandalaraja village in Padalarang. The name Majalengka comes from the toponym Manu Raja Elang Kawi, which refers to Brahmin King Garuda. The name of Gunung Malang village in Bogor comes from the toponym Mount Manu Elang marking the mountain belonging to King Garuda. The regions named after Garuda in Bandung commemorates King Garuda. The name Dadali waterfall in Wargaasih Cianjur village comes from the toponym Garuda controller or the leader of Garuda.

In Yogyakarta, we explored Mount Nglanggeran. Gono, the site keeper (Interview, 2019) illustrates that the word Nglanggeran comes from the toponym of the eagle. Elang Gerang means an old eagle which refers to the King Garuda. That is, Mount Nglanggeran is a mount belonging to the King Garuda. The power of King Garuda in Yogyakarta is commemorated by the name of Garuda on Mount Merapi. Thus, Nglanggeran and Garuda mark the reign of King Garuda in Yogyakarta.

In Central Java, King Garuda marks his territory with the initials Gurdo eagle, eagle, and alap-alap (Gono, Interview, 2019). (a) The name Gurdo village in Karang Anyar comes from the toponym Garudo which refers to King Garuda. (b) There is also Pelang village in Mayong Jepara. The word ‘Pelang’ comes from Pa-Elang which means the place of King Garuda. (c) The name Pemalang comes from the toponym Pa-Manu Elang meaning the place where eagles live. (d) The name of the city of Magelang comes from the toponym Manu Ageng Elang which means the great eagle man. In Magelang, the peak of Mount Sumbing is called Puncak Rajawali and the peak of Mount Andong is called Puncak Alap-alap meaning the peak of the eagles.

In East Java, the power of the King Garuda is reflected in the name of the region with the words Garuda, elang, dadali, and wulung (Rohim, Interview, 2019). Further, he explains that here are places named (a) Grudo village in Ngawi, (b) Pelang village in Trenggalek, (c) Gunung Malang village in Jember, (d) Bedali village in Malang, (e) Tunggul Wulung village in Pandaan, and (f) Tulungagung. The word Grudo comes from the toponym garudo which refers to King Garuda. The word Pelang comes from the toponym Pa-Elang which means the place of the King Garuda. The word Mount Malang comes from the toponym Gunung Manu Elang, which means the mountain belongs to King Elang. The word Bedali comes from the ancient toponym Garuda wali, which means the territory of King Garuda. The word Tunggul Wulung means King Wulung or King Garuda. The word Tulungagung comes from the toponym datu wulung agung, meaning the Great King Garuda.

The toponym with Garuda has prevailed throughout Java signifying the power of King Garuda. A number of toponyms in Java are manifested in acronyms. For example, the name Majalengka is an acronym for Manu Raja Elang Kawi (Junaedi, Interview, 2019). Linguistically, the acronyms in regional names is intended to make the pronunciation easier. This can facilitate oral communication to acknowledge the power of King Garuda.

Toponymy as network of power of King Garuda

Toponym marks the reign of King Garuda in Sumatra, Borneo, Sulawesi, Bali, Nusa Tenggara, Maluku, and Papua. Toponymy uniformity manifests an aggregative act (Ong, 1983). Community unification is intended to build a network of power. King Garuda’s network of power in the archipelago was built with toponyms with the initials Garuda, Elang (eagle), and Rajawali (hawk).

The network of power of King Garuda throughout the archipelago was built by naming the area with initials associated with Garuda. (a) The name of Mount Dempo in Bengkulu, Sumatra exemplifies this toponymy (Siswanto, Interview, 2019). The word Dempo comes from the toponym Garuda Empu. (b) The name Dompu city in West Nusa Tenggara originates from the word Dompu, which comes from the toponym Garudo Empu referring to Empu (Grand) Garuda. (c) The name Donggala city in Central Sulawesi comes from the toponym Garudo Manggala which means warrior of King Garuda. (d) The name of Manado city in North Sulawesi originates from the toponym Manu Nata Garudo which means the king of the human eagle. (e) The Mount Gamalama in Halmahera, Maluku, comes from the toponym Garuda Brahmana Elang Manu which means Brahmin Garuda, the eagle man. (f) The name Doyo Lama village in Papua comes from the toponym Garudo Moyo Elang manu, which means Garuda Maya, the eagle man (Aleyda, Interview, 2016).

The network of power throughout the archipelago is connected by a toponym with the initials Rajawali. (a) The name Bangka Belitung region comes from the toponym Bangka Bali Tungga which means Old Eagle (Siswanto, Interview, 2019). This interpretation is reinforced by ancient stones at Kelayang Beach, Belitung. In that area there is a Bird Island with an ancient stone in the form of an eagle’s head. Local people call it the Garuda stone. (b) The name Morowali city in West Sulawesi comes from the toponym Lomo Rojowali which means an old eagle. (c) Gili Manuk harbor in Bali is associated with words ‘manuk’ and ‘bali’, which are associated with Rajabali or Rajawali. (d) The name Baliem valley in Papua comes from the toponym Bali Empu or bali master which refers to the master Rajawali. The network of power of King Garuda associated with such regional names as Bangka Bali Tungga, Lomo Rajawali, Rajabali, and Bali Empu was developed to unite the regions of Bangka Belitung, Sulawesi, Bali, and Papua in the archipelago.

King Garuda’s network of power throughout the archipelago was united by naming the area with the initial Elang (eagle). (a) The name of Langsa city in Aceh comes from the toponym eagle-goose, which refers to the King Garuda, the son of King Bango. (b) The name of the city of Kolaka in South Sulawesi comes from the toponym Rako Elang Kawi which refers to the King Garuda Kawi. (c) Name of PElang village in South Matan Hilir, West Borneo comes from the toponym Pa-Elang, which means the residence of the King Garuda. (d) The name of the city of Palangkaraya in Central Borneo. The word Palangkaraya comes from the toponym Paelang Kawi Raya which means the place of the King Garuda kawi (Siswanto, Interview, 2019). (e) The name Halmahera Island in Maluku comes from the toponyms Halma Helang Raja which means control (alma) and helang (hera). Halmahera area is the protection area of the King Garuda. (f) The name Kollang Moko hill in Papua comes from the toponym Rako Elang Mokayo which means the King Garuda Mahakaya (Aleyda, Interview, 2016).

Toponyms with the initials Garuda, elang, and rajawali are the power network of King Garuda in building strength and uniting the archipelago. A number of toponyms are in the form of acronyms in ancient Javanese language. For example, the name of the Tasik Malaya (Junaedi, Interview, 2018) in Indonesia is derived from the acronym Nata Gisik Manu Elang Raya meaning the great eagle man, the king of the coast. The name of the region of Malacca in Malaysia is an acronym for Manu Elang Kawi (Aleyda, Interview, 2016). The name Batara village in Timor Leste comes from the acronym Bali Nata Raya, which means the great eagle (Aleyda, Interview, 2016). The name Liang village in Brunei comes from the acronym Bali Byang which means Hyang Rajawali (Sukmaantara, Interview, 2019). The name of the Betong area in Pathani comes from the toponym Bali Tongga, meaning eagle, which is symbolised by the betong bamboo plant (Sukmaantara, Interview, 2019). The use of acronyms in the creation of toponyms serves as the symbol of a secret power network. Living in disguise is a defense strategy of King Garuda as the leader of the Maya dynasty.

Toponym of megalithic buildings as King Garuda’s network of power

King Garuda marked the era under his reign and built a network of power in ancient times in Indonesia. In forward counting, four ages include Cahaya year, Nisan year, Sura year, and Saka year (Soekemi, Interview, 2019). According to the chronogram in ancient caves in Indonesia, in 9999 PS or 9921 BC, the Mayan culture developed in the Sura year, the Sura year began at 9999 PS and also marked the end of the previous year of Nisan. The era continued into the Sura year, characterised by Song Terus Cave in Pacitan, East Java, Lembang Tinerus Guha in Dago area in Lembang Bandung, West Java, and Song Nggethong Cave in Wajak Tulungagung, East Java.

The construction of the Song Terus Cave, Song Nggentong Caves, and Guha Lembang Tinerus marked the beginning of the power network at the beginning of the Sura year (Junaedi, Interview, 2019). The construction was started by King Angsa (baSong) or King Bangau, the father of King Garuda. These buildings referred to the following chronograms.

1. Song Terus Cave site in Pacitan, East Java was associated with the chronogram ‘Gapura (9) ing Gua (9) BaSong (9) Terus (9)’ is the code for 9999 PS or 9921 BC. This is related to the door to the residence of the King Bangau Agung (baSong) as an inscription for the passage of time (Rohim, Interview, 2019).

2. Guha Lembang Tinerus site in the Dago area in Lembang Bandung, West Java, contains the chronogram ‘Guha (9) ing Dalem (9) Bango (9) Tinerus (9)’ as the code for the year 9999 PS or 9921 BC (Junaedi, Interview, 2019). That is, an inscription in the form of a cave with a passage in Lembang (dalem Bango) portrays the residence of the King Bangau and a sign of the passage of time. This cave was once used as a hideout for the Dutch and Japanese during the colonial period.

3. Song Nggenthong Cave site in Wajak Tulungagung, East Java is associated with the chronogram ‘Gapura (9) ing Gua (9) BaSong (9) Nggenthong (9)’ as code year 9999 PS or 9921 BC. This depicts a door is in the form of a large hollow cave (nggenthong) as a source of water (Rohim, Interview, 2019).

In Sura year or the Athenian version of Solon (Sagstetter, 2013), the dynasty of King Garuda Sura came to power. King Elang Sura means the King Garuda reigning in Sura year. King Garuda built a network of power for his dynasty in the archipelago. Around the year 9990 Pre Saka or 9912 BC, King Garuda ascended the throne. Several sites marked this important event, including (a) the Garuda Ngapak site in Ciletuh Sukabumi, West Java, (b) Garuda Temple in the Prambanan Temple complex in Yogyakarta, and (c) the Garuda Ngapak site on the cliffs of Bukit Solor Bondowoso, East Java. The chronogram data are shown below.

1. Garuda site is located at the cliff of Bukit Solor (Solor Hill) Bondowoso, East Java with the chronogram ‘Gapura (9) Garuda (9) Mabur (9) Manginggil (0)’ as the code for the year 9990 PS or 9912 BC. This chronogram implies that King Garuda flew (ascended the throne) which was built at the foot of Mount Ijen (Rohim, Interview, 2019).

2. Garuda Temple in the Prambanan complex was adorned with the chronogram of ‘Gapura (9) Garuda (9) tinerusing Hyang Wisnu (9) agung (0)’, representing the code for the year 9990 PS. This series of codes meant that King Garuda ascended the throne as the successor and servant of the dynasty of King Batara Wisnu who marked Vishnu Temple (Gono, Interview, 2019).

3. Garuda Ngapak site in Sukabumi, West Java is characterised with the chronogram Gapura (9) Garuda (9) ngapak (9) luhur (0). These codes mark the year 9990 PS or 9912 BC. The contents of the chronogram report that King Garuda is glorified (luhur) (Junaedi, Interview, 2019).

The 10^th anniversary of King Garuda’s reign is marked by Garuda stone building at Sukuh Temple on Mount Lawu, Central Java. The King Garuda carved a stone site at Sukuh Temple containing a calligraphy with the script ‘Sulahimana’. The Garuda carving stone contains the chronogram ‘Leng (9) Garuda (9) Brahmono (8) agung (0)’ as the code for the year 9980 PS or 9902 BC (Gono, Interview, 2019). The chronogram contains the message that King Garuda was crowned as a great brahmin. This indicates that the King served as the leader of state and the brahmins to strive together toward the state’s prosperity, which is called brahmana-raja.

In 9961 PS King Garuda reigned throughout the globe. This event was marked by the Barong Garuda Ider Bumi ritual or the Ider Bumi ritual in Banyuwangi. In addition, there is a megalithic building in the form of a Garuda stone on Kelayang Beach, Belitung. This building was erected as a patirtan temple at sea to mark the 50 years of the glory of King Garuda (Figures 1, 2, 3, 4).

Figure 1. The Ancient eagle stone at Kelayang Beach Belitung, Bangka Belitung.

Photo: Billitone capture.

Figure 2. Sketch of Proto-Nusantara script of ancient eagle stone at Kelayang Beach Belitung.

(1) Batu Tumpang Garut site in West Java depicts an eagle’s eye with the chronogram ‘Gapura (9) Garuda (9) ing Selo (1) Tumpang (0)’ as the code for the year 9910 PS or 9832 BC marking 80 years of King Garuda’s reign (Created based on the interview with Junaedi, 2018).

Figure 3. Batu Tumpang site in Cikajang Garut Regency, West Java.

Photo: Yana Mulyana.

Figure 4. Sketch of eagle head at Batu Tumpang site scripted as ‘Sulahimana Sura’ and ‘Dawuda’ in Garut West Java. Source: Sketch produced by the author (Sukatman).

1. The Ider Bumi ritual at Kemiren Banyuwangi with the chronogram ‘Barong (9) Garuda (9) mider (6) ing earth (1)’ as the code for the year 9961 PS or 9883 BC to mark the reign of King Garuda throughout the earth (Rohim, Interview, 2019).

2. The ancient eagle stone site, at Kelayang Beach, Belitung, is characterised with the chronogram of ‘Gapura (9) Elang (9) ing samudera (4) agung (0)’. These codes refer to 9940 PS or 9862 BC. This building marks 50 years of King Garuda reigning in the ocean (Siswanto, Interview, 2018).

Batu Tumpang in Garut was built as a defense surveillance post symbolised as ‘eagle’s eye’. This building was erected during the 80^th anniversary of King Garuda’s reign. On the stone, there is a proto-Nusantara script that reads ‘Sulaihimana Sura’ and ‘Dawuda’. This marks that King Solomon was the successor of King David in the year of Sura, symbolised by ‘bulging eyes’ (Sura) (Junaedi, Interview, 2018).

The 100^th anniversary of King Garuda’s reign is marked by the creation of a Flying Brahmin Garuda statue in Bali. The statue is embedded with the chronogram ‘Garuda (9) Brahmin (8) ngapak (9) ngaluhur (0)’ as the code for the year 9890 PS or 9812 BC. The chronogram contains the message that King Garuda became a great brahmin as a noble ruler (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Flying Garuda Brahmana in Balinese Version. Source: Authors’ personal collection.

To mark 200 years of his reign, King Garuda built a temple in the mountains. The mountain temple is engraved with the Sulahimana script in calligraphy equal to the size of a mountain. The script is written from right to left in the proto-Nusantara script. The mountain temples are located on Mount Nglanggeran, Yogyakarta and Mount Batu Daya in West Borneo.

1. Ancient site of Mount Nglanggeran with the chronogram of ‘Gapura (9) ing Gunung (7) Elang (9) Gerang (0)’ as code for 9790 PS or 9712 BC in Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta (Gono, Interview, 2019).

2. The ancient site of Mount Batu Daya in West Borneo contains a chronogram of Gapura (9) ing Gunung Batu (7) Garuda (9) Hyang (0) as code for the year 9790 PS or 9712 BC (Damang, Interview, 2016).

Mount Nglanggeran was built as a temple for the hermitage of King Garuda. A similar monument was erected by the Dayak community on Mount Batu Daya with a cliff depicting an eagle. The word ‘Dayak’ originates from the toponym of Garuda Hyang Rakai (Dayak). Thus, the Dayak tribe means children and grandchildren (‘tribe/leg’), the descendants of King Garuda. This mountain was built as a hermitage site for Dayak community in Borneo (Damang, Interview, 2016).

The Leang-leang Cave on a cliff in the Maros forest area of South Sulawesi contains a chronogram of ‘Cave (9) ing wana (6) Leang-Elang (9) inggil (0)’ as the code for the year 9690 PS or 9612 BC (Aleyda, Interview, 2016). The chronogram says that the Leang-leang cave is a temple belonging to King Garuda, built in 9690 PS to coincide with 300 years of King Garuda’s reign. This fact confirms Sulawesi as the power network of the King Garuda or King Solomon. This interpretation is reinforced by the name Solomon Cave in Maros, South Sulawesi.

The toponym of the megalithic building with the initials eagle marks King Garuda’s network of power, which includes West Java, Central Java, and East Java. This area is the center of King Garuda’s network of power in Java. The network of power on a wide scale in the archipelago includes megalithic buildings in Bangka Belitung, Borneo, Java, Bali, and Sulawesi. The building constitutes physical evidence of the power network representing the name of the region, in which it was built, throughout ancient Indonesia.

Toponyms of megalithic buildings as King Garuda’s religious network

Temples in the form of carved mountains are located on Mount Budheg in Tulungagung, Mount Pakuwojo in Wonosobo, and Mount Masigit in Padalarang, Bandung. The carved mountain serves to mark King Garuda as a great sage which coincides with the 20th anniversary of his reign. The interpretation that King Garuda is the great sage is supported by the name Walikukun hill in Tulungagung, Walikukun village in Widodaren Ngawi, and Walikukun village in Serang, Banten. The word Walikukun comes from the toponym Rajawali Wiku Kuna which refers to the Garuda Resi. The toponym with the initials Walikukun is the mandala (spiritual center) of Resi Garuda. This indicates that in the year of Sura, King Garuda, apart from being the leader of the state, is also a great sage/wiku or great religious leader who is an expert in asceticism. The following is an example of a sketch of the mountain carving (Figures 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11).

Figure 6. Masigit Mount, Padalarang Bandung, West Java. Source: Authors’ personal collection.

Figure 7. The Caligraphy of ‘Sulahimana Sura’ Script Portraying Eagle Head di Masigit Mount, Padalarang Bandung. Source: Sketch produced by the author.

Figure 8. Garuda Temple in Pakuwaja Mount, Garung Dieng, Wonosobo, Central Java.

Photo: Scenic Tourism.

Figure 9. The Caligraphy of ‘Sulahimana Sura’ script in the form of eagle head in Mount Pakuwaja in Wonosobo. Source: Sketch produced by the author (Sukatman).

Figure 10. Gapura Garuda ing Gunung Budheg in Tulungagung East Java. Source: Authors’ personal collection.

Figure 11. The Caligraphy of ‘Sulahimana Sura’ in the form of eagle head in Gunung Budheg Tulungagung. Source: Sketch produced by the author (Sukatman).

1. The site of Mount Masigit in Padalarang Bandung with the chronogram Gate (9) Garuda (9) ing Gunung (7) Masigit (0) as code year 9970 PS or 9892 BC. The construction of a mandala on Mount Masigit to mark King Garuda as a great sage to coincide with the 20th anniversary of King Garuda’s reign in Padalarang, Bandung (Junaedi, Interview, 2019).

2. The site of Mount Pakuwojo on Mount Dieng, Wonosobo, Central Java, with the chronogram Gapura (9) Garuda (9) ing gunung (7) adihyang/dieng (0)’ as code of year 9970 PS or 9892 BC. This mountain temple marks King Garuda as a great sage who is an expert in meditation in Wonosobo (Gono, Interview, 2019).

3. The site of Mount Budheg Tulungagung with the chronogram Gapura (9) Garuda (9) ing gunung (7) Budheg (0) as the code for the year 9970 PS or 9892 BC marks King Garuda’s 20 years in power. The construction of Mount Budheg as a place of imprisonment for the deaf (mbudheg) Resi Garuda Sura in Tulungagung (Rohim, Interview, 2019).

Toponyms of Mount Masigit, Mount Pakuwojo, and Mount Budheg are not formally connected. The connection is found in mountain carvings which symbolise the head of an eagle and calligraphy in the proto-Nusantara script that reads Sulahimana Sura on all three. The three mountains are called ‘Sulaiman Carved Mountain’ because it contains the name of King Solomon, which was built in the year Sura around 9970 PS equivalent to 9970 Sura - 78 AD = 9892 BC. The carved mountain building was developed in the Nusantara tradition because the sages were worshiped by climbing the mountain and meditating to glorify the name of God. The making of mandalas on mountains in the Sundanese and Javanese communities was an effort by King Garuda to build a spiritual network in ancient Indonesia centered on the island of Java (Gono, Interview, 2019; Junaedi, Interview, 2019).

The news of a king carving a mountain and praying on it has been mentioned in the Qur’an Surah Saba ‘verses 10–17 about King Dawud (David) and King Solomon who climbed the mountain and meditated at the top (Maghfirah, 2006, pp. 429–430). The reading of the tasbih has the same meaning as the expressions of ‘Gusti Mahasuci, Gusti Mahamurah, Gusti Mahatunggal, and Gusti Mahagung’ (God the Sacred, the Merciful, The Only One, and The Greatest) in Javanese theology. This strengthens the interpretation that King Garuda is actually King Solomon of the archipelago. The interpretation is strengthened by the calligraphy of the proto-archipelago script that reads ‘Sulahimana Sura’ on the carvings of Mount Budheg, Mount Pakuwojo, and Mount Masigit in Java. Thus, King Garuda in addition to the head of state is also a great resi or prophet in the Islamic perspective.

Toponymy contribution to the national defense

Toponymy based on the Garuda mythology spread throughout Java region as the power base of King Garuda. The power network in Java is connected to the regions of Bangka Belitung, Sumatra, Borneo, Sulawesi, Bali, Nusa Tenggara, Maluku, and Papua. The power network is marked by a toponym with the initials of Garuda, eagle, eagle, wulung, and peregrine. This connection is found further afield in Pathani Thailand, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, and Timor Leste. The signs of the King Garuda might also be discovered in these countries.

In Pathani, there is a region called Bang Lang. The word Bang Lang comes from the toponym crane-eagle which refers to the King of the Stork and Eagle (Rozali, Interview, 2015). In Malaysia there is the island of Langkawi. The word Langkawi comes from the toponym Elang and Kawi which means the brahmin Garuda (Rajak, Interview, 2015). In Singapore there is Palawan Island which comes from the toponym PaElang Wani which means brave King Garuda (Rozali, Interview, 2015). This interpretation is reinforced by the name Brani Island, which is the island of the brave King Garuda. In Brunei there is the name Ladan hill. The word Ladan comes from the toponym Elang Medan which means the territory of King Garuda (Rozali, Interview, 2015). In Timor Leste, there is a village named Malahara. The word Malahara comes from the toponym Manu Elang Maharaja which means Maharaja the eagle man (Antoni, Interview, 2016). The names of these areas confirm that the Pathani, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, and Timor Leste territories in ancient times were under the reign of King Garuda. The description of this territory is almost similar to that in the Majapahit territory.

Learning from the experience of the release of parts of Majapahit territory as a new country and the release of Timor Leste, the Indonesian people should not be caught off guard by the undermining of other nations and separatists (Rahayu, 2016). The Indonesian nation is obliged to defend the country as a legacy of King Solomon. Other nations often interfere with the sovereignty of the Republic of Indonesia (Fajar AM, 2017) under the guise of trade, democracy, and humanity. Threats, challenges, incitements, and disturbances are always present in the competition for hegemony of nations in the world. What has happened will prevail. In the future, Indonesia needs to keep maintaining the national integrity. Tens of thousands of years ago Nusantara was a big country. The nations descended from King David and King Solomon should be united, rather than opposing one another for any reason.

Conclusion and recommendation

This study to a certain extent has succeeded to portray the link between the toponyms and King Garuda mythology by connecting the narratives of Garuda related toponyms in different regions in Indonesia and in some other related Asian countries. The toponym and chronogram on the megalithic buildings in Indonesia adorned with initials Garuda depict the culture of the year of Solon. Birds were used as a symbol of the dynasty. The declaration of power is done by creating a toponym with the initials Garuda. The power network is characterised by megalithic buildings and temples. The mountain is carved with Sulaihamana Sura calligraphy in proto-Nusantara script as a religious network and a place of worship to God Almighty.

Indonesian ancestors built Song Terus cave as a symbol of the beginning of the Sura year. Cadas cliffs and the Garuda Ngapak stone mark King Garuda’s accession from the throne. Ider Bumi ritual marks the power of King Garuda that has reached all parts of the earth. King Garuda is King Sulahiman, the son of King David who carved a mountain and meditated on its peak. The footprints of King Garuda can be a proof of the possibility of the existence of Prophet Solomon in ancient Indonesia with a cultural centre in the island of Java.

King Garuda plays the role of state leader, great Brahmin, and great sage (prophet). King Garuda became a legend inspiring the creation of regional names, the establishment of mandalas and temples, as well as artistic activities in Indonesia. At different times, the legend of Garuda turned into a myth. When the legend has become a myth, people tend to perceive the myth as a fiction, as it is now. This evinces that human memory is vulnerable to being lost by the changing times.

Indonesia’s megalithic sites are ancient. There are historical findings that ancient temples and megalithic buildings were founded in AD, apparently marking the year the building was completed or the year it was renovated. The results of this current study do not conflict with existing historical research. This study is limited to identifying the initial construction of building, the purpose of construction, and the function of the building. Preferably, ancient site research should be carried out with an interdisciplinary approach supported by modern technology such as isotope layer testing so that the findings of site age are more accurate. Megalithic sites and temples related to King Solomon should be investigated further. The site needs to be made a cultural narrative, developed into a learning resource, and empowered for tourism industry.

Disclosure statement

The authors report that there are no conflicting interests to declare.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Sukatman

Sukatman is a senior lecturer in education at Jember University. He obtained his doctorate degree from The University of Malang. His Research interests include anthropology, folklore, mythology, toponymy, dan megalithic culture.

S. M. Fitriyah

Siti Masrifatul Fitriyah is a lecturer in education at Jember University, Indonesia. She obtained her PhD in Education from The University of Manchester, UK. Her research interests include language policy and planning, teacher education and professional development, bilingual education, narrative inquiry, multiculturalism and multilingualism, and researching multilingually.