Lexical variation in the Lampung language, Indonesia

Abstract

In 1925, population transmigration from Java to Pringsewu, Lampung Province, Indonesia, through the Dutch East Indies Colonialization program, led to a diverse population in terms of language and culture. This qualitative study aims to identify lexical variations in the Lampung language in Pringsewu Regency. Direct interviews were conducted with informants in Margakaya, Pardasuka, Suka Ratu, Waya Krui, and Sinar Waya, utilizing a research instrument comprising 200 Swadesh vocabulary items. Findings reveal the use of dialect A in the Lumpung language, with sub-dialects Pepadum (Pubian) and Saibatin (Coastal), by geographical variation. The study identifies 72 lexical variations, 17 gloss differences in sub-dialects, and four lexical variations due to language contact, particularly in regions bordering transmigrant communities. Factors contributing to lexical variation include environmental influences, language contact, lexical diffusion, and dialect differences. This research contributes to efforts in preserving the Lampung language in the Pringsewu Regency.

Keywords:

• Language variation
• lexical variation
• language preservation
• Lampung language
• geolinguistics

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Lincoln Geraghty, School of Media and Performing Arts, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom

SUBJECTS:

• History
• Cultural Studies
• Language & Linguistics
• Sociolinguistics
• Applied Linguistics
• Linguistic Theory

1. Introduction

The Lampung language, originating from Lampung Province, Indonesia, is utilized by the indigenous Lampung ethnic groups. Ariyani et al. (2022) categorize it into dialect A and dialect O, distinguished by vowel endings /a/ and /o/, respectively. Isnaeni and Riana (2022) note that, historically, dialect A was spoken by Way Semah and Peminggir Masyarakat Adat Semangka in Pringsewu Regency before 1952. Currently, native speakers in Pringsewu Regency include the Pepadun (Pubian) and Saibatin (coastal) indigenous communities (Dinata, 2020; Erlina et al., 2016). Although the Lampung language is used for daily communication, the number of speakers is limited. Syaputri et al. (2022) further classify Lampung into four dialects based on geographical locations: Abung, Coastal, Pubian, and Komering.

Pringsewu’s history traces back to the establishment of the Margakaya in 1738 (Septianingtias et al., 2014). The village, situated along the banks of the Way Tebu River, is inhabited by indigenous people of the Lampung ethnic group (Koning et al., 2013; Kusworo, 2014; Leimona et al., 2015). In 1925, through a colonial program implemented by the Dutch East Indian government brought Javanese people to Lampung Province (Diehl, 1993). They established their settlement by clearing the dense bamboo forest and named the area ‘Pringsewu’, meaning a thousand bamboos. The transmigrant population in the Pringsewu Regency is spread across nine districts dominated by newcomers. The proximity of indigenous Lampung people’s settlements to those of newcomers has led to language contact and, consequently, linguistic variation (Cohn & Ravindranath, 2014). The interplay and cohabitation between the indigenous Lampung people and the immigrants have engendered complex social dynamics that influence the community’s identity (Suhardiman et. al., 2021; Tirtosudarmo, 2021; Wiryomartono, 2020). The amalgamation of cultures and customs has not only impacted everyday living but has also played a significant role in the development of a distinct social environment inside the Pringsewu Regency. The presence of several separate groups living together has probably led to social adjustments, common customs, and maybe difficulties, contributing an additional dimention to the intricate dynamics of Pringsewu’s cultural development.

This research aims to elucidate the linguistic situation in the Pringsewu Regency. Geographically, Pringsewu Regency is located 37 kilometers west of Bandar Lampung, the provincial capital, with coordinates 104°48″–105°08″ E and 05°12″–33″ S. Pringsewu shares borders with Central Lampung Regency to the north, Tanggamus Regency to the south and west, and Pesawaran Regency to the east (Dwiyani & Mukodimah, 2019). Pringsewu has nine districts (Lestari & Sakti, 2020). In this study, five villages from five districts were selected based on the observations. These villages were selected because they contain groups of Lampung speakers. The villages observed are Margakaya, Waya Krui, Pardasuka, Sinarwaya, and Sukaratu.

This study adopts a geolinguistic approach, a branch of dialectology that examines geographical dialects (Adli & Guy, 2022; Hu et al., 2022; Kirk et al., 2022; Wahya, 2018). Geographic dialects refer to geographical variations in a language aside from social and temporal variations (Lin et al., 2022; Røyneland & Lanza, 2023). Dialectologists use the term ‘variations’ because it has a neutral connotation (Britain & Trudgill, 2005; Chambers, 2004; Trudgill, 2004a, 2008). This study examined variations in the Lampung language in Pringsewu Regency based on the dialects used by Lampung language speakers at five observation points. Emerging variations are lexical variations resulting from changes in the lexical system (Kimmelman et al., 2021). Lexical variations occur due to contact between adjacent isolates (Green, 2022; Karaj, 2022; Saiegh-Haddad et al., 2022). Hudson (2002) and Palfreyman (2015) argued that isolated contact can occur functionally and socio-linguistically because of the functions of isolates in everyday life. Matras (2020) and Wei (2020) state that language contact can occur when two languages are used in one place, allowing them to influence each other mutually. Geographically, variations in Lampung are influenced by other regional languages or the proximity of regions. Language changes can cause lexical variations, leading to lexical innovation and diffusion. With the development of language and the decreasing number of Lampung language speakers in Pringsewu Regency, the Lampung language may also be influenced by Indonesian, the national language used by speakers for prestige in their living environment and as a means of communication with speech partners who cannot speak Lampung. This research aims to describe the distribution of lexical variations and the spread of Lampung language dialects in Pringsewu Regency based on geolinguistic studies and to describe the factors causing lexical variations in the Lampung language in Pringsewu Regency.

Previous research on Lampung language variations was conducted by Suprayogi (2019), titled ‘Language Variations and Language Interference in Pringsewu Regency: A Dialectological Study’. The results show that four dominant languages exist in the Pringsewu Regency: Javanese, Lampung, Sundanese, and Semendo. Nur (2021) also conducted research titled ‘Lexical Variations and Innovations in the Lampung Language’ in Bandar Lampung, with results indicating internal innovations at the lexical level, both in full and phonetic lexical forms. Based on the results of previous research, this study focuses on lexical variations and the factors causing them in the Lampung language of Pringsewu Regency.

2. Methods

The method used in this study was qualitative. Dicks et al. (2006) explain that qualitative research is a research procedure that produces descriptive data, namely written and spoken words, from observed individuals. The first step in this research method is to collect or provide data, which is the initial step before assessing or analyzing the data. Data can be collected through direct observation, listening, or speaking. Lynch and Mendelsohn (2013) argued that listening is carried out by listening to language use. Advanced methods were conducted through interviews (Wahya, 2018). The technique used involved node taking. Data were collected using research instruments in the form of a list of questions. The instrument used in this study was a Swadesh vocabulary list consisting of 200 words containing basic and cultural lexicons. The use of Swadesh vocabulary in this research serves as a benchmark for studying language and dialect variations that have undergone contact with other languages. Its application can undergo a reduction or addition of new glosses if new or outdated lexical variations are found at the observed points.

The data source in this study was oral data from the individuals included in the study. The data source in this research had certain criteria for determining the informants. The criteria for proposing informants refer to those proposed by Trudgill (2004b), namely, non-mobile, old, rustic, male, and NORM. Additionally, Lauder (2004) suggested that informants should meet the following criteria: (a) indigenous people whose parents and grandparents come from the same village, (b) married individuals whose partners are from the same village, (c) ∼40 years old, (d) maximum basic education, (e) low work mobility, (f) infrequent travel, (g) perfect senses, (h) not shy and not closed-minded, and (i) willing to be interviewed according to the research needs. The population and sample in this study were five villages, with one informant in each village.

The observation points in this study were selected based on villages with groups of Lampung speakers. According to findings from previous research (Suprayogi, 2019), villages inhabited by indigenous Lampung people are also inhabited by speakers of other languages (immigrant communities). Therefore, the observed villages have a percentage of users of Lampung and immigrant languages, as shown in the following table (Table 1).

Table 1. The research observation point.

NO	Research Point	Language	Population percentage
1	Margakaya Village Pringsewu Sub-District	Lampung	35%
		Java	35%
		Java Serang (Jaseng)	30%
2	Waya Krui Village Banyumas Sub-District	Lampung	50%
		Java	50%
3	Pardasuka Village Pardasuka Sub-District	Lampung	50%
		Java, Jaseng, Sunda, Padang	50%
4	Sinar Waya Village Adiluwih Sub-District	Lampung	97%
		Java	3%
5	Suka Ratu Village Pagelaran Sub-District	Lampung	90%
		Sunda	5%
		Java	5%

The instrument used in this study consisted of a list of questions. Wahya (2011) argues that a list of questions is used in research instruments. The list of questions contained several questions that provided information about observation points, informants, and a set of Swadesh vocabulary. Data documentation is carried out by coordinating field findings and recording research instruments derived from recordings using a recording device, such as a voice recorder. In this notation technique, the obtained data are transcribed into phonetic writing. Data classification was the final stage of the data collection process. In this final stage, the data were classified based on the research objective, which was to obtain lexical variations in the Lampung language in Pringsewu Regency.

3. Result and discussion

Here is a map of Lampung Province indicating Pringsewu Regency marked with an arrow (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Map of Lampung province.

The map above geographically indicates that Pringsewu Regency is located in the central part of Lampung Province. The Pringsewu Regency covers an area of 62,500 ha, making it the smallest regency in Lampung Province (Pringsewu, 2015) (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Map of Pringsewu Regency.

The map illustrates the distribution of the nine districts in Pringsewu Regency. The observation points in this study were five villages from five districts selected by the researcher based on the following considerations.

1. Villages where the majority of the population speak Lampung. The villages where at least 30% of the population spoke Lampung were selected. This percentage was determined based on the number of speakers in an area that still used Lampung in their daily lives.

2. Villages with language variations in terms of geographical location, meaning villages where speakers speak the Lampung language but also have speakers of other languages or have boundaries with villages that use different regional languages. This consideration was made by the researcher to demonstrate the distribution of language variations resulting from lexical variations as well as social and geographical factors.

3. These villages were considered old. Selecting old villages as observation locations allowed for the presence of native speakers of the Lampung language.

Based on the results of the observations, interviews, and distribution of 200 Swadesh vocabulary items to informants at the five observation points, the following lexical variations in the Lampung language were obtained.

In Table 2, phonetic symbols representing the distribution of Lampung language words in the five villages have been written and adjusted to the usage of English, ensuring that the phonetic symbols employed are understood by readers. Moreover, Lampung belongs to the Austronesian language family of the Melayu–Polynesian branch. Therefore, the writing of these phonetic symbols was adapted from the International Phonetic Alphabet. Based on the reduction in 200 Swadesh vocabulary items, 72 Indonesian glosses were found that resulted in lexical variations in the Lampung language at five observation points in Pringsewu Regency, Lampung Province, Indonesia. The emergence of lexical variations in Lampung at the five observation points is influenced by dialect differences, geographical locations bordering speakers of other regional languages leading to language contact, and the resulting lexical variations due to language change developments. Similarly, previous research was conducted by Nur (2021). His study, titled ‘Variations and Lexical Innovations in the Lampung Language’, found the factors leading to lexical variations, including 62 glosses out of the 200 selected Swadesh glosses at observation points bordering Javanese-speaking populations. Based on the research findings, there is internal innovation in Lampung at the lexical level, resulting in systematic and controlled language variations. As stated by Wahya (2011), research related to dialects produces language variation. In the Lampung language of the Pringsewu Regency, language variations arise because of dialectal differences, resulting in lexical variations in the form of phonological and morphological variations.

Table 2. The distribution of lexical variations in the Lampung language in Pringsewu Regency.

	GLOS	Research point
		Village 1 Margakaya	Village 2 Wayakrui	Village 3 Pardasuka	Village 4 Sinarwaya	Village 5 Sukaratu
		Data	Data	Data	Data	Data
1	Ash	hamua	hambua	hambua	hambua	hambua
2	Float	təhampau	ŋəlamau	ŋambaŋ	ŋələmau	ŋəkhambaŋ
3	Cloud	gheghiyuk	aban	awan	awan	awan
4	How	gohpa	khəpa hana	gohkhəpa	khəpa hani	haga khəpa
5	Good	bətik, həlau	həlau	bətik	həlau	bətik
6	Burn	suwah	paŋgaŋ	suah	nyuwah	bakar
7	Come back	mulaŋ	mulaŋ	moloh	muloh	pulaŋ
8	Father	baɁ, buya, apaɁ	baɁ	ebaɁ	baɁ	bapak
9	Lie down	tughui	ŋanyak	dolɐkh	dulik	pədom
10	Correct	benɔgh	benɔkh	benɔkh	temɔn	benɔkh
11	Seed	bibit	bibit	mulan	mullan	bibit
12	When	kiɁ	kapan	seandaini	khəpa cakha	khəpa
13	Moon	kənawat	bulan	bulan	bulan	bulan
14	Kill	pati	mati	patikɔ	tikɔl	mati
15	Hunt	pasu, masu	tandang	ŋemasu	Masu, nembak	berburu
16	Kiss	Hunduŋ, ŋemuk	umbau, ŋumbau	əmmuk	cium	cium
17	Wash	basuh	Basuh, mipokh	məpoh	məpoh, basuhan	basuh
18	Lake	paya	danau	danau	danau	danau
19	Dust	habu	khakhəbuk	khəkhəbuk	khakhebuk	debu
20	With	jama	jama	jama	khik	khek
21	Hear	təŋis, tiyoŋ	nəŋis	dəŋis	nəŋis	dəŋis
22	Cold	ŋison	ŋɐson	ŋɐson	ŋison	ŋɐson
23	Standing	təməgi, təgi	cucok	cəcok	cəcok	cəcok
24	Push	juluŋ, sughuŋ	jujun	jujun, solokh	jujun	doroŋ
25	Two	ghuwa	khua	khua	khua	khua
26	Dig	kali, kekogh	gali	kəduk	ŋəkokh	gali
27	Teeth	ipon	ipon	ɛpon	ipon	ɛpon
28	Rub	gusuk	kikkit	asakh	gusuk	gosok
29	Hit	hantam	hantam	gasak	gasak	lawan
30	Erase	hapus	hapus	hapus	lipokh	hapus
31	Black	halam, aghoŋ, halom	halom	hakhoŋ	halam	halom
32	Count	ghikin	hituŋ	bilaŋ	tibilaŋ	hituŋ
33	Forest	pullan	pullan, khimba	khimba	Pullan, hekhah	hutan, khimba
34	He	beliau	ia, dia	iyu	ya	niku
35	Tie	ikok	ikoɁ	ɛkok	ikok	tali
36	Wife	bebai, iŋgoman	kajoŋ	kajoŋ	kajoŋ	kajoŋ
37	This	iji	hijjo	hinji	inji	hinji
38	That	udi	udo	hudi	udi	hudi
39	Sew	səghuk	nyəkhuk	səkhuk	nyəkhuk	jait
40	Walk	lapah	khaŋlaya	lapah	lapah	khaŋlaya
41	Fall	tiyan, gugogh	təhumba	gogokh	tumbak	gogokh
42	Fog	imbun	khiuɁ	imbun	khihuk	kabut
43	It	kantu	ki	kik	kantu	ki
44	Because	ulah	ŋəba	ulih	ulih	ulih
45	Fighting	laga	khigu	laga, khigu	khigu	khigu
46	Dry	ŋəluh	kəkhiŋ	kəkhiŋ	kəkhiŋ, mənyaŋu	kəkhɐŋ
47	Lice	kutu	tuma	kutu	kutu	kutu
48	Other	sumaŋ, baghih	lain	sumaŋ	bakheh	sumaŋ
49	Man	ghagah	bakas	bakas	bakas	bakas
50	Throw	sitaŋ	sitaŋ	tayakh	tayakh	tayakh
51	Spit	Ilui, lətok	əlui	lətop, luy	luy	lətop
52	Straight	lughus	khalis	khalis	mekhalis	khalis
53	Sing	səgata	səgata	ŋəlagu	bəlagu	nyanyi, pantun
54	People	jəlma	jəma	jəkhəma	jəma	jəkhma
55	Sand	pasikh, pasɐgh, nyipi	hənni	hənni	həni	həni
56	Hold	kətoŋ, pəguŋ	cəcan	pəguŋ, pəgik	cancan, təkon	pəguŋ
57	Short	buntak, ghəbah	buttaɁ	khəbah	buntak	khəbah
58	Squeeze	piyoh, həghok	kecil	pecil	kecil	pecil
59	Stomach	betoŋ	tenai	betoŋ	tenai	betoŋ
60	Think	pikɐgh	pikikh	mɐkɐkh	mikɐkh	pɐkɐkh
61	Cut	pəlok	tuttoɁ	pəlok	pəlok	pəlok
62	Noon	mawas	dəkhani	dawah	dəkhani	dawah
63	Husband	məŋiyan	khajoŋ	kajoŋ	kajoŋ	kajoŋ
64	River	way balak	way	duwai	way	uwai
65	Rope	kɛlok	tali	kəsakha	tali	tali
66	Eggs	tahlui	tahlui	tahlui	təhlui	təhlui
67	Friends	khik, kanca	khiɁ	khek	khik	khek
68	Fly	hambogh	hambokh, habaŋ	hambokh	kambokh	hambukh
69	No	mawat	mawat	Eŋgok, muat	dang	muat
70	Stab	pagas	pagas	tujah	pagas	tikam
71	Thin	nipis	nipis	pepih	tipis	tipis
72	Bone	baluŋ, kukah	tuhlan	tulaŋ	tullan	tulaŋ

3.1. Lexical variation due to dialectal differences

Based on the 200 Swadesh vocabulary items, 17 glosses were found to cause lexical variations due to dialectal differences, as shown in the following table (Table 3).

Table 3. Lexical variations due to dialectal differences.

	Glos	Pubian dialect	Pesisir dialect
1	Ash	Hamua	hambua
2	Cloud	gheghiyuk	aban
3	Standing	təməgi	cucok, cəcok
4	Moon	kənawat	bulan
5	Lake	Paya	danau
6	Dust	Habu	khakhəbuk
7	Count	Ghikin	hituŋ
8	Wife	bebai, iŋgoman	Kajoŋ
9	Dry	ŋəluh	kəkhiŋ
10	Man	Ghagah	bakas
11	Straight	Lughus	khalis
12	Sand	pasikh, pasɐgh, nyipi	hənni
13	Squeeze	piyoh, həghok	kecil
14	Noon	Mawas	dəkhani, dawah
15	Husband	məŋiyan	khajoŋ
16	Rope	kɛlok	kəsakha
17	Bone	baluŋ, kukah	tuhlan, tullan

The dialectal differences in the above table represent the Pubian dialect used by Lampung speakers on TP 1 and the coastal dialect used by Lampung speakers on TP 2, 3, 4, and 5. Emerging dialectal differences constitute lexical variations that differ in form and pronunciation. In the Coastal dialect, there are three glosses that do not exhibit lexical variations in the Lampung language, namely the glosses ‘bulan’ (moon), ‘danau’ (lake), and ‘hitung’ (count), while in the Pubian dialect, only variations in the Lampung language emerge.

The lexical variations in Lampung in Pringsewu Regency resulting from dialectal differences give rise to variations distinguished by changes in sounds influenced by differences in vowels and consonants. At the five observation points, the dialect used by Lampung speakers in Pringsewu Regency is Dialect A, which includes the Pubian and Coastal dialects. Dialect A/Pubian is found on TP 1, namely, in the village of Margakaya, whereas Dialect A/Coastal is found on TP 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. In the Pubian and Coastal dialects, there are lexical differences marked by the appearance of the consonant ‘gh’ used by the Pubian dialect/TP 1 and ‘kh’ found in the Coastal dialect/TP 2, 3, 4, and 5. For example, in the gloss ‘benar’ (correct), which produces variations ‘benɔgh’ ‘benɔkh’ ‘benɔkh’, the gloss ‘dua’ (two) produces variations ‘ghua’ ghua ‘khua’ ‘khua’, the gloss ‘jahit’ (sew) produces variations ‘səghuk’ ‘səghuk’ ‘səkhuk’ ‘səkhuk’, the gloss ‘terbang’ (fly) produces variations ‘hambogh’ ‘hambogh’ ‘hambokh’ ‘hambokh’, and the gloss ‘pendek’ (short) produces variations ‘ghəbah’ and ‘khəbah’. In addition to the highlighted dialectal differences in the distinctive consonants of each dialect, lexical variations were also found in the vowel sounds, as follows:

1. The gloss ‘dingin’ (cold) produces two lexical variations, namely ‘ngison’ and ‘ngɐson’. The word ‘ngison’ is used in TP 1 and 4, while ‘ngɐson’ is used in TP 2, 3, and 5. These two words differ in their central vowels. These differences are not in the form of vowel patterns but are based on language variations that bring about innovations in the Lampung language. The emerging language innovations are based on the forms of old and new words, with ‘ngison’ referring to the old word and ‘ngɐson’ to the new word.

2. The gloss ‘berdiri’ (stand) produces three variations, namely ‘təməgi/təgi’ found in TP 1, ‘cucok’ (fit) in TP 2, and ‘cəcok’ found in TP 3, 4, and 5. TP 2, 3, 4, and 5 still have sound and lexical form similarities compared to the findings for TP 1. The findings on these variations are distinguished based on sub-dialects, where the variation ‘təməgi/təgi’ is used by speakers of the Pubian sub-dialect and ‘cucok’/’cəcok’ is used by speakers of the Coastal sub-dialect.

3. The gloss ‘gigi’ (tooth) produces two lexical variations, namely ‘ipon’ and ‘ɛpon’. These two vocabulary items differ based on sound, seen from the initial vowels/i/and/ɛ/. The word ‘ipon’ is used in TP 1, 2, and 4, while ‘ɛpon’ is found in TP 3 and 5. This vowel difference is a finding of language innovation that refers to old and new words, with ‘ipon’ referring to the old word and ‘ɛpon’ to the new word.

4. The gloss ‘hitam’ (black) produces four lexical variations, namely ‘halam’, ‘aghoŋ’, ‘halom’, and ‘hakhoŋ’. In TP 1, there are three lexical variations used, namely ‘halam’, ‘aghoŋ’, ‘halom’, but of these three words, ‘halam’ is the one often used by speakers/informants. In TP 2 and 5, the word ‘halom’ is used. TP 3 uses ‘hakhoŋ’, and in TP 4, the word ‘halam’ is used. The findings of these four lexical variations refer to lexical innovations marked by the old word ‘halom’ that brings about the new word ‘halam’ and the word ‘hakhoŋ’ that brings about the new word ‘aghoŋ’.

5. The gloss ‘ikat’ (tie) produces three variations, namely ‘ikok’, ‘ɛkok’, and ‘tali’ (rope). In TP 1, 2, and 4, the variation ‘ikok’ is used, TP 3 produces the variation ‘ɛkok’, and the variation ‘tali’ appears in TP 5. The findings of lexical variations in the Lampung language have initial vowel differences/i/and/ɛ/. Both variations are lexical innovations that refer to the old and new vocabulary forms.

6. The gloss ‘karena’ (because) produces three variations, namely ‘ulah’, ‘ngəba’, and ‘ulih’. The variation ‘ulah’ only appears in TP 1, ‘ngəba’ appears in TP 2, and ‘ulih’ appears in TP 3, 4, and 5. Based on these three variations, the variation ‘ngəba’ has a different form compared to the other two variations. The variations ‘ulih’ and ‘ngəba’ are new words, while ‘ulah’ is an old word in the Lampung language. The emergence of ‘ulih’ and ‘ngəba’ represents a form of lexical language innovation.

Based on the findings of sound and vowel differences, the lexical variations that emerge are influenced by the language or dialect identity used. It can be observed that the variations in TP 1 or the Pubian dialect are more diverse, with one gloss producing one to three lexical variations. Additionally, there are variations that appear not only in the Pubian dialect, but also in the Coastal dialect. The lexical variations were identified as old and new words. Old words refer to those used earlier by the Lampung community and are referenced in the Lampung language dictionary, whereas new words are discoveries currently used by Lampung language speakers and have the same meaning as the old words. The Lampung language undergoes language changes owing to the emergence of these language variations, indicating that it is experiencing innovation.

3.2. Lexical variation due to language contact

Based on geographical location, the observation points in this study border speakers of other regional languages, leading to lexical variations that lead to language contact. Here are the geographical language conditions found at the five observation points.

(1) Margakaya Village, Pringsewu Sub-District (TP 1)

Margakaya Village is the oldest village in Pringsewu Regency, established in 1738. The village is inhabited by native Lampung people with Pepadun customs and is located on the banks of the Way Tebu River (4 km from the current center of Pringsewu city). The people of Margakaya belong to the Pubian clan of the Lampung ethnic group, which originates from the Negri Sakti, Negri Katon, and Negara Saka. The inhabitants of this village still use the Lampung language in their daily lives, specifically dialect A. Margakaya is located near the Pringsewu East and Ambarawa Sub-Districts, where the majority of the population consists of Javanese transmigrants.

(2) Wayakrui Village, Banyumas Sub-District (TP 2)

According to data from the Pringsewu Regency Government, Banyumas Sub-District is a developed sub-district with a small-town classification. Wayakrui was originally a forest that was later cleared in 1948 by 30 people from the Krui Pesisir Barat Regency. The name Wayakrui is derived from the Lampung language, with ‘waya’ meaning happy and ‘krui’ from the name of the residents’ original area. The Lampung language used here is dialect A of the coastal subdialect. Wayakrui is the only village in the Banyumas subdistrict in which the population speaks Lampung. Geographically, Wayakrui borders the Adiluwih, Sukoharjo, and Banyumas Sub-Districts, where the population consists mostly of Javanese and Sundanese transmigrants.

(3) Pardasuka Village, Pardasuka Sub-District (TP 3)

The Pardasuka Sub-District is located in the southern part of the Pringsewu Regency, a region that was once inhabited by Dutch colonialists. The subdistrict has 13 villages, with the population mostly dominated by Lampung ethnic groups. Among the eight villages in which the population spoke Lampung, four were dominated by Javanese ethnic groups. Lampung is a coastal dialect.

(4) Sinarwaya Village, Adiluwih Sub-District (TP 4)

The Adiluwih Sub-District is classified as a small town in the Pringsewu Regency. It was first opened by transmigrants from Java, including those from West Java, Central Java, and Yogyakarta. Sinarwaya Village is the only village where the population belongs to the Lampung ethnic group. The dialect used by the people of Sinarwaya is the A Coastal dialect.

(5) Sukaratu Village, Pagelaran Sub-District (TP 5)

Sukaratu is a village in the Pagelaran subdistrict bordering the Tanggamus Regency. The residents of this village use lampungs in their daily lives. The village is adjacent to communities that speak Javanese or Sundanese. Based on these observations, Lampung is A Coastal dialect.

Based on the findings of lexical variations, there are two glosses that undergo language contact, namely in the gloss ‘kutu’ (louse) that produces the variation ‘kanca’, the gloss ‘teman’ (friend) that produces the variation ‘kanca’, and the gloss ‘tulang’ (bone) that produces the variation ‘balung’. According to these findings, ‘tuma’ is of Javanese origin, ‘kanca’ is from Javanese Serang, and ‘balung’ is from Javanese. The variation ‘tuma’ appears in TP 2, where it is known that the region of Lampung language speakers borders with residents who speak Javanese, while variations ‘kanca’ kanca ‘balung’ appear in TP 1, where the region borders with people who speak Javanese and Javanese Serang.

Based on the findings of this research, the variations in the Lampung language originate from two dialects: the Pubian dialect (TP 1) and the coastal dialect (TP 2, 3, 4, and 5). Based on a reduction of 200 Swadesh words and interviews with informants, there were 72 lexical variations in the Lampung language in Pringsewu Regency, and 17 glosses showed lexical variations due to dialectal differences influenced by changes in vowel and consonant sounds. These sound changes are influenced by dialectal differences. Furthermore, the four glosses indicated lexical variations due to language contact. The findings at the five observation points illustrate that the process of lexical variation in the Lampung language is caused by the elimination or addition of consonants, variations in consonant forms, vowel variations, differences in prefixes, and similarities in word sounds. These findings indicate that changes in grammatical structure are part of the changes in lexical variation. The factors causing the emergence of lexical variations in the Lampung language are (1) environmental factors in daily or native language acquisition; (2) language contact in areas bordering transmigrant populations; (3) lexical diffusion, which is the gradual change in language resulting in the emergence of new words; and (4) dialectal differences.

Another factor in the occurrence of lexical variations, as found in Indonesian, is the influence of the environment when Lampung speakers interact with interlocutors from different ethnic groups, leading them to use Indonesian. The results of interviews with informants at the five observation points concluded that individuals over 30 years of age generally use the Lampung language in daily life, while their children tend to use Indonesian as their daily communication tool. An in-depth analysis of the distribution of newcomers in the region also shows that this condition is influenced by migrant communities that do not understand Lampung, resulting in the use of Indonesian and a decrease in the use of Lampung. From the interviews at the five observation points, the areas experiencing a decline in the Lampung language were TP 1, 3, and 5. This decline occurred due to social contact, relocation, and interethnic marriage. In line with these findings, Nur (2021) found that lexical variations can occur due to geographical factors, such as living areas bordering speakers of other regional languages. This aligns with the research conducted by Rukmana and Subiyantoro (t.t.), who found similar factors in the study of lexical variations in other languages.

Based on several factors causing lexical variations in the Lampung language in Pringsewu Regency, researchers should conduct a more in-depth analysis of additional factors that could trigger lexical variations at the five observation points in Pringsewu Regency, particularly considering the social status of speakers. Notably, this aspect was not addressed in the present study. Labov’s (2006) theory states that speakers from different backgrounds show significant linguistic variations based on prominent features, such as geography and economic status. Additionally, much remains to be developed regarding the language variations that occur at the five observation points, such as the possibility of language variations resulting from a language shift. Previous research by Aslm Gunarwan (2002) concluded that language shifts to Indonesian have occurred in several domestic regions. Therefore, further research is needed and attention from regional governments is crucial for the preservation of the Lampung language in Pringsewu Regency, Lampung Province.

4. Conclusion

The research findings reveal that variations in the Lampung language can be traced back to two dialects: the Pubian dialect in TP 1, and the coastal dialect in TP 2, 3, 4, and 5. Based on the results of 200 Swadesh words and interviews with informants, there were 72 lexical variations in the Lampung language in Pringsewu Regency, and 17 glosses showed lexical variations due to dialectal differences influenced by changes in vowel and consonant sounds. Furthermore, the four glosses indicated lexical variations due to language contact. From the interviews at the five observation points, TP 1, 3, and 5 regions experienced a decline in the use of the Lampung language. The factors causing a decline in the use were social contact, relocation, and interethnic marriage. The factors that cause lexical variation are environmental factors, language contact, lexical diffusion, and dialectal differences.

The research findings on lexical variations of the Lampung language in Pringsewu Regency have several implications that can be studied further, namely the identification of Pubian and coastal (pesisir) dialects, which may become the foundation for future studies in linguistics and dialectology. The studies may focus on language characteristics that differentiate the dialects based on phonological variations, grammatical structure, and syntactic differences. This research highlighted the impact of language contact on lexical variations. Future studies can investigate the dynamic of language contact in Lampung language-speaking communities and explore how external influences contribute to language evolution. It may involve examining bilingualism patterns, language borrowing, and code-switching. The decline of Lampung language usage in certain regions (Observation Points 1, 3, and 5) shows that the initiative focusing on language preservation and revitalization is necessary. Future studies may explore an effective strategy to improve language retention by considering identified factors such as social contact, relocation, and inter-ethnic marriage. The social factors affecting language decline, such as social contact, retention, and inter-ethnic marriage, can be studied further from the perspective of sociolinguistics. Understanding how these social dynamics influence language use may become an input for policy and intervention to preseve language diversity. Future studies may also explore specific environmental influences towards language, including geographical features, climate, and cultural practice. Understanding the relationship between environment and language variation can contribute to understanding broader linguistic ecology. Lexical variations identified in the Lampung language can be compared to other regional languages to identify potential language clusters or relationships. Analysis of comparative linguistics may explain the relationship between historical linguistics and contribute to the broader understanding of language evolution in the region.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to deliver our gratitude to related parties in this research, namely informants in each observation point, the government of Pringsewu Regency, and officials in the villages of Margakaya, Waya Krui, Pardasuka, Adiluwih, and Suka Ratu who permitted the authors for conducting the research. The authors also convey our gratitude to the Faculty of Cultural Sciences Universitas Padjadjaran Bandung, Indonesia, for the opportunity given and guidance in conducting research on the Lampung language as an effort to preserve local culture and language in Indonesia.

Disclosure statement

The authors report there are no competing interests to declare.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Veria Septianingtias

Veria Septianingtias has been a lecturer of Indonesian language and literature education at Universitas Muhammadiyah Pringsewu Lampung from 2014 to the present. She graduated fro m a bachelor’s program in linguistics at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia and a master’s and doctoral pro gram in linguistics from Universitas Padjadjaran Bandung, Indonesia. She has researched and is interested i n linguistic studies, including sociolinguistics, pragmatics, phonology, semantics, morphology, syntax, dia lectology, and geolinguistics. She wrote several books, namely Pengantar Linguistik (Introduction to Journalism) and Pengantar Linguistik (Introduction to Linguistics).

Wahya

Wahya is a lecturer in bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral programs at the Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung, Indonesia. He is head of the Language Center at Universitas Padjadajara n. He has researched and is interested in linguistic studies, including dialectology, geolinguistics, semantics , sociolinguistics, morphology, and syntax. He wrote several books, namely Fatis Bahasa Sunda dalam Pe rspektif Sintaksis (Sundanese Phatic in the Perspective of Syntax), Fatis Bahasa Sunda dalam Perspektif Sosiolinguistik (Sundanese Phatic in the Perspective of Sociolinguistics), Nuansa Kajian Fatis Bahasa Sunda (Phatic Nuances of Sundanese Language), and Mengenal Vokatif dalam Bahasa Sunda (Introducing Sundanese Vocative).

Tajudin Nur

Tajudin Nur is a professor of structural linguistics at the faculty of Cultural Sciences Universita s Padjadjaran Bandung, Indonesia. Currently, he is the head of the linguistic departement of Universitas Padjadjaran. He is a lecturer for bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral programs at Universitas Padjadjaran. He is interested in and specializes in Arabic linguistics, particularly in morphosemantics and translation. He wrote several books, namely Pengantar Analisis Wacana Kritis Bahasa Arab (Introduction to Arabic Critical Discourse Analysis), Pengantar Studi Sosiolinguistik Arab (Introduction to Arabic Sociolinguistic Study), and Pengantar Linguistik Arab (Intriduction to Arabic Linguistics).

Farida Ariyani

Farida Ariyani lectures Indonesian language and literature and Lampung language education at Universitas Lampung, Indonesia. Her expertise and interest are linguistic studies, including morphology, syntax, sociolinguistics, and Lampung language education. As an expert in Lampung language, her research focuses on Lampung language preservation, and she wrote several Lampung language dictionaries. Currently, she heads the Lampung language education departement of Universitas Lampung.