Aesthetic and functional analysis of mosque entrance areas in Ottoman and Safavid Empires: a comparative study

Abstract

This study aims to thoroughly investigate the architectural complexities and historical relevance buried in mosque entrances, particularly those reflecting the Ottoman and Safavid architectural styles. The research uses an interdisciplinary technique that combines historical analysis, comparative perspectives, and architectural critique, drawing on a variety of sources including scholarly literature, architectural treatises, historical documents, and archaeological objects. The use of visual evidence, such as architectural schematics and photographic recordings, improves the display and comparison of architectural components within mosque entrances, addressing both aesthetic and functional aspects within a larger sociohistorical framework. The study systematically unravels the complex parallels and variations that characterize mosque entryway compositions during the Ottoman and Safavid eras, highlighting distinguishing aspects inherent in each kingdom’s architectural identity. The research uses a chronological lens to examine architectural development, charting the evolution of design characteristics and functional alterations throughout many historical eras. The interpretation of results situates these findings within the larger study subject, stressing reciprocal impacts on architecture and acknowledging regional or cultural differences. The research examines the use of calligraphy, geometric patterns, and religious symbolism in mosque entry imagery to understand how these aspects contribute to the representation of cultural and religious narratives. Furthermore, it investigates the practical aspects of these architectural spaces, revealing their critical tasks in conducting religious events, meeting congregational requirements, and conserving cultural practices. By throwing light on the common splendor and nuanced contrasts in Safavid and Ottoman mosque entrances, this study not only improves our understanding of Islamic architecture but also prepares the path for future research into the community features of mosque spaces. It serves as a foundation for future research into architectural elements in Islamic civilizations and, by combining historical inspiration with modern conceptions, has the potential to contribute to contemporary mosque design. This study contributes to architectural scholarship by investigating the varied character of mosque entry design, with a focus on its visual, perceptual, and functional value. The Isfahan School era is examined, exhibiting a trend toward complex, angled entrances. The investigation of entry methods, such as from the corner and behind the Iwan, reveals novel design options. The study offers subtle insights by emphasizing the user perspective and highlighting the function of entering places in anticipation and spiritual preparation. It adds to a thorough understanding of mosque entry progression, which influences the whole user experience and so improves architectural literature.

Keywords:

• Architectural Design
• historical relevance
• Islamic architecture
• Entrances
• Ottoman and Safavid Empires

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Lincoln Geraghty, School of Media and Performing Arts, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom

SUBJECTS:

• Iranian Studies
• Theory of Architecture
• Interior Design
• Culture
• Heritage Management & Conservation
• Design History
• History of Art & Design

1. Introductıon

1.1. Background and significance

Two unique architectural and cultural paradigms that were influential in the early modern Islamic world are those of the Ottoman and Safavid Empires (Arcak Casale, 2023). From the late 13th until the early 20th century, the Ottoman Empire ruled over a wide range of regions in Europe, Asia, and Africa (Kuban, 2010). The Ottomans left behind an architectural legacy that included Seljuk, Byzantine, and Islamic elements. It stands out in particular for the magnificence of its mosque doors, which are best represented by the famous Selamlik gates with their elaborate writing, carvings, and tilework that communicate the mosque’s central role in the town (Anar, 2022). The Safavid Empire, on the other hand, displayed its unique architectural style and cultural flair throughout its 16th–18th-century rule over Persia (Pope, 2008; Tabassi, 2008). Safavid mosques had a distinctive appearance and small entrances; they were sometimes tucked away along quiet lanes or side streets. Safavid builders preferred to create large, open courtyards as a place for communal gathering and devotion, rather than focusing on the opulence of entrances (Soltanzadeh, 1993; Tabassi, 2008). Innovative dome designs, elaborate tilework, and exquisite patterns set the Safavid architectural style apart.

The coexistence of these empires resulted in centuries of exchanges that shaped their architectural styles through a permanent cultural interchange (Güngörürler, 2024). This study aims to clarify the subtleties of mosque entrances, analyze the architectural foundations of these structures, and place their evolution within these two amazing empires. It aims to reveal the shared and distinctive characteristics of these architectural components while illuminating the historical factors that influenced their development.

We take a trip that offers deep insights into the historical fabric of the Ottoman and Safavid Empires by exploring their architectural and cultural nuances. This investigation provides a deeper understanding of the architectural traditions that flourished under the Ottoman and Safavid regimes, in addition to strengthening our awareness of the decorative and practical elements of mosque entrance sections.

In the larger framework of Islamic architectural traditions, it is imperative to emphasize the significant significance of mosque entrance spaces (Pope, 2008; Soltanzadeh, 1990). Mosque doorways, which are frequently decorated with exquisite features and sophisticated architecture, act as the gateway to the sacred area and, as such, have a variety of functions beyond the strictly utilitarian (Ayvazyian, 1997).

Architectural Elegance and Identity: Over the years, Islamic architecture has been affected by creative and aesthetic sensibilities, as demonstrated by mosque entrances (Kuban, 2010). These regions show a striking combination of calligraphy, geometric patterns, and decorative elements that represent the various Islamic cultural influences (Arcak Casale, 2023). According to Haj Vaziri et al. (2021), mosque doorways serve as canvases on which artists and architects have conveyed the aesthetic and cultural identity of the neighborhood, empire, or period.

Spiritual Symbolism and Ritual Significance: Mosque doorways have ritual significance and spiritual symbolism beyond just serving as doors; they are symbolic portals to a higher plane of existence. The elaborate decorations and calligraphic writings frequently reference passages from the Quran or the names of Allah, conveying deep theological meaning (The British Library, n.d.). As the devout enter the hallowed area, these particulars lead them toward the act of worship and inspire awe and reverence in them (Shafir, 2020).

Social Hub and Community Gathering: Mosque entrances function as social hubs where communities congregate in many Islamic cultures (Taner, 2020). These places serve as gathering places both before and after congregational prayers, encouraging interpersonal communication and a sense of community (Uluç, 2022). Mosque doors serve as hubs for social interaction and cross-cultural exchange in addition to being stunning examples of architecture.

Historical and Regional Context: By analyzing mosque entrances of the Safavid and Ottoman Empires, distinct stories of regional influences, historical shifts, and cultural interchange can be revealed. We may examine the development of these empires and their architectural responses via the prism provided by these entrances, which bear the traces of historical occurrences and sociopolitical shifts.

Functional Adaptations: Mosque entrances are created with functionality in mind, in addition to aesthetic appeal. They offer protection from the weather, space for worshippers to congregate, and frequently have ablution facilities (Walker, 2021). Gaining an understanding of these entrances’ functional characteristics is essential to understanding their significance in Islamic society.

In conclusion, mosque entrances play an important role in the complex fabric of Islamic architectural traditions, flawlessly weaving together spirituality, culture, aesthetics, and historical importance. The investigation of these gates is particularly intriguing because of their exquisite architectural elements, cultural significance, and community roles, especially when juxtaposed with the Ottoman and Safavid Empires’ different designs. This investigation allows for a better understanding of the numerous elements inherent in Islamic architecture, highlighting its persistent presence throughout multiple ages and empires.

1.2. Research question and objectives

1.2.1. Research question

This extensive research delves deeply into the architectural traits and importance of mosque entry areas in two significant Islamic empires: the Ottoman and Safavid Empires. The key research issue driving this comparative examination is, ‘How do mosque entrance areas in the Ottoman and Safavid Empires exemplify the fusion of aesthetics and functionality within the broader framework of Islamic architectural traditions?’ This research delves into the structural, artistic, and practical aspects of mosque entryways, methodically scrutinizing decoration, structural design principles, and the contextual variables of religion, society, and history that have changed these spaces throughout time. The study attempts to decipher the detailed elements of these entrances, including domes, arches, calligraphy, and decorations, by examining the Ottoman deployment of towering doorways known as Pishtaq and the Safavid use of wide domed halls known as Iwan. The comparative approach delves deeper into the cultural, historical, and sociological influences that shape design decisions, attempting to understand how these architectural features conveyed notions of majesty, respect, and spiritual significance within the Safavid and Ottoman Empires’ respective cultural milieus.

Furthermore, the study investigates the larger consequences of these architectural decisions, including their influence on the user experience within mosques, religious activities, and community dynamics. Questions arise about the functional and aesthetic implications of spatial configurations, the use of courtyards, and the incorporation of water features in Ottoman entrances, as opposed to the more subdued entrances in Safavid mosques discreetly positioned along side streets, emphasizing the role of open courtyards in fostering communal gatherings.

Finally, this academic attempt addresses a comprehensive study subject that encompasses both the decorative and functional aspects of mosque entryways during the Ottoman and Safavid eras. By disentangling the complexities of architectural decisions, the study seeks to understand the cultural and historical influences that shaped these gateways, providing insights into their contributions to the spiritual, social, and architectural legacies of the many empires. The primary research question focuses on a nuanced analysis of mosque entrance areas, with the goal of providing a thorough understanding of the subtleties inherent in Islamic architectural traditions, by investigating both shared influences and distinctive qualities that shaped these architectural features across the diverse contexts of the Ottoman and Safavid empires.

1.2.2. Particular goals

Several particular goals have been established to adequately address the main research question:

Finding the Similarities and Distinctions: The study aims to highlight the distinctive features that each empire’s mosque doors have to offer, while also pointing out the similar architectural components and decorative themes that both Ottoman and Safavid mosque entrances share. Examining Change Over Time: Following the development of mosque entrance designs during various eras within the Ottoman and Safavid Empires is a major goal. Understanding how functional elements and architectural characteristics changed throughout time in response to shifting societal demands and influences requires a temporal analysis.

Contextual Analysis: The study’s goal is to look at the larger historical, geopolitical, and cultural background that shaped these empires’ mosque entry layouts. Interpreting the significance of the architectural decisions made in these spaces requires an understanding of the surrounding context.

Comparative Iconography: The study will examine the iconography found in mosque entryways, emphasizing geometric patterns, calligraphy, and religious symbolism. It seeks to demonstrate these aspects’ contributions to the overall aesthetic and symbolic meaning by contrasting how they were used in the Ottoman and Safavid contexts.

utilitarian Adaptations: The study aims to investigate the utilitarian features of mosque entrances in both empires, going beyond aesthetic considerations. It will examine how these areas were modified to meet congregational requirements, cultural customs, and particular rituals in each empire, illuminating differences in design and spatial organization.

Visual Documentation and Scholarly References: Textual descriptions and historical records, along with digital reconstructions, photographs, and architectural plans, serve as vital sources of information for this study. To create a strong basis for the comparative analysis, the research also consults a wide range of scholarly sources, including academic publications, architectural treatises, historical documents, and archeological discoveries.

In sum, these particular goals steer the research toward a comprehensive examination of mosque entrance areas in the Ottoman and Safavid Empires, intending to reveal their intricate architectural, cultural, and functional details and advance our knowledge of the Islamic architectural traditions of these eras.

1.3 Scope and rationale of study

1.3.1. Determining the temporal and geographic range

Geographically speaking, the Ottoman and Safavid empires represent two historically significant empires where the architectural legacy of mosque entrance regions is the main subject of this research. The geographic range includes areas that correspond to the historical maximum territorial extensions of these empires, mainly including what is now modern-day Turkey for the Ottoman Empire and Iran for the Safavid Empire. This narrow but precise geographic scope is necessary for a thorough analysis of the chosen architectural features and customs.

In this case, temporal scope is equally important. Focusing on the Ottoman and Safavid mosque entry areas from their inception to the pinnacle of their architectural accomplishments, the research focuses on the distinct historical periods within these empires. The most significant epochs of architectural innovation and cross-cultural interchange between the two empires are encompassed by this chronological scope, which runs from the late 14th to the 17th century. This era, which coincides with the pinnacle of the Safavid Empire during the Safavid dynasty and the Ottoman Empire’s architectural grandeur under the direction of renowned architect Mimar Sinan, represents important advancements in mosque building. This timeline was chosen to guarantee a thorough comprehension of the topic while maintaining the study’s manageability.

1.3.2. Recognizing Rationale of study

This rstudy is significant in the field of architectural studies because it examines the intertwined effects of the Ottoman and Safavid empires. The primary goal is to provide a comprehensive understanding of their common cultural and historical legacy using a critical lens that goes beyond traditional architectural appraisals. Unlike previous studies that focused on separate components, this research pioneers a dynamic examination of historical, social, and artistic links, filling a significant gap in existing knowledge. Its unique emphasis on fluid exchange, rooted in historical affinities, economic contacts, and cultural diplomacy, separates it from previous efforts and provides a new perspective on architectural progress. The study emphasizes the larger implications of common architectural influences, highlighting their symbolic representations of power, identity, and social goals. Using a multifaceted approach, it investigates materials, building methods, spatial configurations, and socioeconomic aspects, promoting a thorough understanding of mosque entry designs and laying the groundwork for future architectural research. The study’s unique insights into design philosophies, stylistic preferences, and cultural dynamics heighten its relevance, ushering in a paradigm change in architectural studies by arguing for a comprehensive and multidisciplinary examination of architectural progress.

2. Methodology

2.1. Data collection

2.1.1. Data sources

This study mainly draws from a wide range of carefully selected data sources to guarantee the academic integrity of the study. An extensive collection of historical documents, scholarly publications, highly regarded architectural treatises, archeological discoveries, and a variety of visual materials are among the primary sources.

The main sources—historical accounts and architectural treatises, in particular—form the cornerstones of our investigation into the architectural narratives enshrined in the mosque entrance areas of the Safavid and Ottoman Empires. These papers offer priceless insights into the design ideas, architectural concepts, and deep symbolism that guided the development of these entranceways. Prominent publications by expert architects and historians like Kuban (2010), and Cansever (2010) provide us with essential resources that enable us to access the fundamental ideas that shaped Ottoman architectural design, while Ayvazyian’s work opens the door to Iranian architectural ideas, enhancing our comparative analysis (Ayvazyian, 1997).

The vast amounts of archeological evidence, which serve as real windows into the past, are also of great use to the study. Researchers obtain empirical data by carefully examining the architectural remnants that have survived after archeological sites have been excavated. This information includes the components, ornamental patterns, architectural designs, and practical features that were essential to mosque entrances in the Ottoman and Safavid periods (Pope, 2008; Soltanzadeh, 1990, 1993). Our intellectual perspectives are broadened by a solid foundation of secondary sources in the form of scholarly works and academic periodicals. These resources offer analyses, interpretations, and critical assessments of mosque entry areas as well as the larger architectural development of the Ottoman and Safavid Empires. Our route toward a comprehensive and well-rounded study is illuminated by the abundance of historical narratives, scholarly papers, and comparative studies (Habibi, 1996; Pope, 2008; Tabassi, 2008).

Visual documentation is the visual story of our comparison investigation; it is similar to the ornamental elements of a big façade. Digital reconstructions, carefully taken photos, and architectural drawings are essential. They provide unparalleled visual clarity when displaying and contrasting architectural features. Together with written descriptions and historical accounts, these visual records paint a rich and multifaceted picture of the contested mosque entrance sites (Arcak Casale, 2023; Haj Vaziri et al., 2021).

2.1.2. Fieldwork

An essential component of architectural research, fieldwork has the power to increase the authenticity and depth of our work. The bulk of our material is based on historical narratives and the surviving physical structures from bygone eras, but fieldwork adds a human element and allows researchers to enter the historical context. To give our study life, fieldwork may involve visiting these architectural wonders firsthand. These walks provide opportunities for an experienced comprehension of the intricate architectural details, spatial arrangements, and historical significance of these mosque entrances. The researcher records decorative details, measures everything precisely, and creates a comprehensive visual database throughout these visits. The value of fieldwork is in its capacity to reveal hidden architectural gems, support or refute historical accounts, and reveal aspects that have not been previously documented.

Fieldwork viability, however, is dependent on several variables, including research resources available, preservation status, and ease of access to historical locations. Fieldwork reaches its pinnacle in areas with strong Ottoman and Safavid architectural legacies, like Istanbul and Isfahan, which enables us to unlock the mysteries concealed behind these doors. Furthermore, fieldwork establishes a link between the past and the present by providing a perspective on experiencing and appreciating architectural legacy within its historical and spatial context. For academics, this firsthand interaction with history is priceless since it adds a practical viewpoint to the study.

2.2. Data analysis

The careful and methodical use of comparative analytical methodologies is the foundation of this study. This is where the secrets of the Ottoman and Safavid mosque entrance sections’ architectural tales are revealed. This study uses several tried-and-true methods to perform a solid comparison study. These techniques make it easier to spot patterns, trends, and similarities and differences between the Ottoman and Safavid architectural traditions. Finding similarities between the two empires entails exposing ornamental patterns and design aspects that cut over national borders. This study identifies the larger Islamic architectural history that influenced these mosque entrances by following these commonalities (Pope, 2008). At the same time, was described in detail the distinctions between the mosque entrances of the Ottoman and Safavid periods. These distinctive qualities can include particular decorative motifs, materials, or design tenets that are influenced by local or cultural influences. By focusing on these distinctions was understood the subtleties of the architectural identities of each empire as well as the effects of social, cultural, and historical factors (Balkhari Gahr, 2010; Taner, 2020).

The study takes a comparison approach that goes beyond looks and into functionality. The study examined how these mosque entrance rooms were modified in both empires to accommodate particular rituals, congregational requirements, and cultural traditions. Therefore, we can see the deeper layers of design that were influenced by the functional demands of the time by analyzing the layout, spatial organization, and functional adaptations (Haj Vaziri et al., 2021; Anar, 2022).

One important aspect of the comparative study was temporal analysis. It charts the temporal development of mosque entryway architecture in both empires. Based on this can understand the historical context and the causes driving these architectural advances by looking at how design features and functional characteristics altered over time (Uluç, 2022). Additionally, the study used a comprehensive contextual analysis approach. The study examined the larger historical and sociopolitical backdrop in addition to the exterior features of mosque entrances. This includes a thorough examination of how regional dynamics, religious influences, and Safavid-Ottoman connections shaped mosque entry designs. To evaluate architectural decisions and expose the historical stories concealed behind facades, it is imperative to comprehend this background. Within the parameters of legal and institutional compliance, ethical guidelines for researching historical and cultural artifacts include protecting and preserving artifacts, obtaining informed consent, employing non-destructive methods, maintaining cultural sensitivity, adhering to copyright laws, addressing ownership disputes, and promoting education and awareness (Table 1).

Table 1. Flowchart of the study’s methodology.

3. Mosque entrance elements

3.1. Ottoman and Safavid architecture

With its long history, the Ottoman Empire (1299–1922) left behind a rich architectural legacy. Several distinguishing features identify Ottoman architecture. The elaborate designs and writing adorning domes and semi-domes, which are particularly common in mosques, added to their grandeur. Ottoman structures were not complete without courtyards and gardens, which offered spaces for rest and reflection that were frequently accentuated by fountains, dense foliage, and vibrant flowers. Architectural designs often used a variety of arch forms, such as horseshoe, pointed, and rounded arches, often adorned with geometric patterns and calligraphy. Structures gained an artistic depth from the decorative tilework that covered walls and surfaces with finely hand-painted designs. Islamic architecture is typified by its slender, graceful minarets, which called the faithful to prayer and were embellished with elaborate designs and calligraphy. Muqarnas, or ornamental plasterwork with tiny three-dimensional recesses, was often used to adorn the vaults and ceilings of mosques. Turkish baths, or hammams, were another highlight of Ottoman design. Here, people could unwind and perform ritual washing amidst elaborate mosaics and elaborate tilework. The empire-built caravanserais—impressive, fortified buildings with ornate entrance gates and courtyards that provide travelers and their animals with shelter and security—along trade routes. Ottoman architecture created a unique and timeless architectural style by embracing the use of materials like stone, brick, and tile. There are several distinctive features in the architectural legacy of the Safavid Empire (1501–1736) in Persia. Impressive bridges like the Si-o-se-pol Bridge in Isfahan, which spans the Zayandeh River, further demonstrated the empire’s dedication to trade and connection. The exquisitely designed gardens of the Safavid dynasty, which included fruit trees, canals, and fountains, brilliantly demonstrate their attention to geometric patterns and layouts. The 16th-century Bagh-e Fin Garden in Kashan is a famous example of this architectural style. Safavid architecture was renowned for its deft geometric patterns, elaborate tile work, and commitment to creating environments that were both aesthetically beautiful and useful. One of the best examples of exquisite calligraphy, intricate tilework, and imposing domes typical of the mosques built during this era is the Shah Mosque in Isfahan. The Chehel Sotoun Palace in Isfahan is a prime example of a palace known for its opulent decorations, which featured ornate tile work, lavish gardens, and fine embellishments. The Grand Bazaar in Tehran, which was established in the sixteenth century, is one prominent example of the prosperous marketplaces and bazaars that characterized the Safavid Empire. Along major trade routes, caravanserais were constructed to offer travelers shelter and security. They had central courtyards, imposing entrance gates, and room for both humans and their animals.

3.2. Unique characteristics

Mosques, among other religious structures, were among the architectural features that the Ottoman and Safavid Empires had in common. The usage of domes, which adorned the tops of towering central constructions or minarets, was one common characteristic. Built with sturdy materials like stone or brick, these domes were well-known for their elaborate decorations, which included calligraphy, colorful tiles, and intricate patterns.

The widespread use of muqarnas, a beautiful type of ornamental vaulting made of tiny, concave pieces skillfully arranged to produce a three-dimensional pattern resembling a honeycomb, was another aspect of their shared architecture. This eye-catching architectural feature embellished the interiors of mosques, adding richness and dimension to the walls and ceilings.

In addition, Iwan architecture—which is typified by rectangular halls or rooms arched overhead with one or more walls completely open to the outside—was adopted by both empires. In addition to their practical uses, these architectural features gave the mosque shade, ventilation, and a striking entrance.

Finally, the Safavid and Ottoman Empires were well known for their use of elaborate and vibrant tilework. Carefully applied glaze on ceramic tiles created elaborate geometric and floral designs. These tiles had a captivating visual effect when they covered floors, walls, minarets, and domes.

Fundamentally, both dynasties showed a common love for building elaborate and opulent mosques with features like domes, muqarnas, Iwan architecture, and vibrant tilework. These commonalities reflected the distinct artistic forms and cultural influences particular to each empire, in addition to their Islamic architectural heritage.

Mosque architecture’s core components are the mihrab, prayer hall, minaret, and courtyard. The courtyard’s square or rectangular layout is usually intended to create an airy, spiritually uplifting area for guests of the mosque. Architects and artists frequently use courtyards as blank canvases to display their skill.

The minaret, also called the ‘place of light and fire’, is a tall, thin building that is placed next to graves and mosques. Minarets, which were historically used to proclaim the call to prayer, also functioned as beacons, directing and helping people as they made their way to highways, mosques, caravanserais, and madrasas utilizing light and fire signals. The height and style of a mosque’s minarets are directly correlated with those of the mosque itself.

Architectural ideas that feature entryways from both sides of the portico can lead to a magnificent eight-sided waiting area with a dome that is accessible by a door header and gate. With its eight-sided form, it may be opened in any direction and without having to be oriented in a certain way, just like a doorknob. The Sahn, which is covered by a dome and is typically closed off for congregational prayers, stretches toward the mihrab. It serves as a place for prayer as well as social and political gatherings centered around Islamic philosophy. To ensure the comfort of those who attend prayer, this area may occasionally be split for climatic reasons or gender-specific separation. This area is called Gonbadkhane (which represents a space crowded with a dome) or Shabestan in Iranian architecture.

The center of the mosque is the mihrab, which indicates the direction of the qibla. It is a key component in leading prayers and is decorated in a variety of ways that represent the mosque’s historical context and significance. Apart from these fundamental components, mosque architecture includes additional crucial elements that add to the variety of mosque designs. Islamic architecture is replete with decorative elements like arabesques, geometric patterns, and calligraphy, which serve as both aesthetic and symbolic elements, often communicating philosophical or theological ideas.

Another important factor in mosque building is the use of materials. While modern elements like concrete and steel are used in contemporary mosque designs, traditional materials like brick, stone, and wood are still frequently used. The mosque’s overall appearance, dependability, and maintenance needs are greatly influenced by the materials used.

4. The concept of hierarchy ın architecture

The notion of ‘ascension’ refers to the process of transcending or raising entities, humans, or ideas to a higher level within an organized hierarchy. In numerous theological and spiritual debates, ascension is inextricably linked to the climb to a higher heavenly or divine level, representing a hierarchical development toward a higher condition of spiritual life. The ascension story frequently exhibits a recognizable hierarchy in which persons or things are meticulously ordered, indicating a graded degree of value or spiritual significance (Figure 1). Traditional Iranian architectural ideas are profoundly founded in hierarchical conceptions, notably in the arrangement of space components. The use of various geometric forms creates adaptable areas that encourage multiple interpretations. This hierarchical approach is particularly evident in Islamic architecture, where visual embellishments, such as muqarnas, play a critical role in perceptual refinement through smooth shape changes. Spatial hierarchy also includes the placement of distinguishing elements such as iwans and rooms, which establishes organizational systems based on support and connectedness.

Figure 1. ‘Ascension’ (معراج); Nizami Ganjavi’s Khamsa, Safavid Period (Shah Tahmasb), a work by Sultan Muhammad, printed in Tabriz in the years 946–950 H (Islamic calendar). Currently, it is housed in the central library in London.

This architectural framework not only provides spatial continuity by meeting practical, environmental, and emotional demands, but it also indicates transitions and changing viewpoints. In modern design, hierarchy extends beyond conventional adornment, impacting functional, organizational, and geographical factors. For example, in modern office design, hierarchy directs the arrangement of divisions to improve cooperation and communication while stressing the importance of certain zones. In essence, hierarchy is central to architecture, acting as a guiding concept for space planning and defining human interactions and experiences within architectural contexts.

4.1. Hierarchy and entrance area

In both visual and spatial dimensions, the Isfahan school followed hierarchical ideas, as did other architectural styles of the time. Changing beliefs fueled concrete advances in art and abstract alterations in architecture, both of which were previously unknown in traditional methods. This era’s Safavid design filled architectural spaces with spiritual importance, contributing to a simple yet profound style. During this golden period of hierarchical design, tremendous architectural development was made. Mosques, as iconic examples of traditional Islamic architecture, effectively reflect the Isfahan School’s influence on architectural forms (Soltanzadeh, 1993). Artists and architects, inspired by a desire for perfection, used their best skills and craftsmanship to build magnificent structures. Because of the concentrated authority of a single governmental entity, the mosques at the Isfahan School followed established plan types. Furthermore, the dominant ideological movement of the time demanded architects and artists be careful in their thoughts (Habibi, 1996).

As a result, this research focuses on investigating how the concept of hierarchy develops within architectural aspects, notably the entrance regions of mosques from this period. It also attempts to draw parallels with the evolving Ottoman Mosque design of the same era.

4.2. Entrance areas and decorations of Safavid mosques

Iranian architecture was frequently examined as a subset of Islamic architecture or within the context of Arab-Islamic art before Arthur Upham Pope’s significant research on Iranian art. Pope’s investigation focused on the entrance mechanisms of major mosques such as Shah and Sheikh Lotfollah. Pope quoted world-renowned architect Louis Kahn when describing the Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque, saying, ‘I can only imagine this work made of gold and silver ink in my dreams’, while Sheila Blair and Jonathan M. Bloom expressed their awe at the psychological and visual impact of the spacious and luminous first entrance (Balkhari Gahr, 2010).

Previous research investigated many components of these mosques’ entrance procedures, with disagreements occurring about the open construction and turning shape associated with the qibla direction (Figure 2). The entrance sections, as focal points, represent the philosophical beliefs of the time. Varieties of entrance locations, driven by economic opportunities, natural conditions, and functional demands, effectively express the philosophies of the time. The goal of shaping entry areas is to combine utility and form. These gateways promote interaction, transformation, clarity, regulation, and invitation within a spatial configuration.

Figure 2. Imam Mosque (Shah Mosque), Isfahan, Entrance plan, by obstructing the direct view of the courtyard with a small movement at the entrance element in the direction of the square formation, privacy has been provided, Iran Ministry of Culture, 2000, Isfahan.

In Iranian mosque architecture, the entrance area consists of numerous features (such as Jelokhan, entrance area, courtyard or stage, Iwans, Shabestan, and so on), with the variety and nomenclature subject to change depending on the period and geographical location. Following their evolutionary path, all constructions include an entrance area, never immediately connecting the courtyard to the street. During the transition from temples to congregational worship in the early Islamic period, entrance areas were simpler, typically consisting of merely entrances. While there had been previous developments and additions before the Isfahan School, structural constraints rarely resulted in considerable alterations. Entrance areas in Iranian architecture have been enhanced with many characteristics over time. This article, on the other hand, is largely concerned with discussing the characteristics of the Safavid period found within mosque doors.

In Iranian mosque architecture, the entry area is made up of several vital parts, each having its own functional and aesthetic value. The Jelokhan, a vast zone before the main entry porch, plays an important role in emphasizing the structure’s architectural significance, frequently containing a pool that complements its traditional style. The Pishtaq, located between the entrance and the tunnel, functions as a transitional space and a pre-entry waiting room. The Dargah, measuring the depth of the wall containing the entry door, demonstrates variety, often ranging from 50 cm to 150 cm depending on the magnitude of the entrance area. The Sabbat, an arched tunnel that protects from harsh weather, is found in constructions with vast Jelokhan architecture. Following the Dargah, the Heşti serves as a decision point and waiting space, allowing for the bifurcation of entry routes. The Dalan, which serves as a foundation for linking different functions, maintains continuity and leads routes, making a substantial contribution to the notion of privacy. The Iwan, which rose to prominence during the Ilkhanid dynasty, is central to the architectural design of the entry area. Finally, the Revak, a semi-open space, maintains formal continuity while having a specific practical purpose: organizing a smooth transition from open to enclosed regions. These delicate components combine to create a complex and well-orchestrated entry area in the world of Iranian mosque design.

The entry plan of the Imam Mosque in Isfahan, also known as the Shah Mosque, stresses privacy by carefully obscuring direct views of the courtyard. To guarantee a sense of privacy upon entry, this architectural arrangement uses subtle motions in the entry element that align with the square formation. The Imam Mosque, known for its elaborate tile work, superb calligraphy, and stunning arches and domes, is one of Iran’s most magnificent specimens of Safavid-era architecture.

The mosque entryway was extremely important architecturally in both the Ottoman and Safavid Empires. A spectacular doorway, known as a ‘portal’ or ‘Pishtaq’, marked the entry of mosques throughout the Ottoman Empire. These gates, embellished with beautiful carvings and calligraphy, functioned as a link between the worldly and sacred worlds. This space, which led into a courtyard known as the ‘sahn’, served as an intermediary zone between the noisy streets and the quiet mosque interior. Similarly, the Safavid Empire distinguished the mosque entry with a great gateway known as an ‘iwan’. This vaulted hall served as a transitional region between the profane surrounds and the sacred inner sanctuary, and was frequently adorned with intricate tilework and calligraphy. The Iwan provided a grand entrance to the main prayer chamber. Both civilizations used architectural aspects to induce awe and reverence once inside. The main prayer hall’s massive dome supported by arches and piers, covered with complex patterns and calligraphy, served as a visual focal point under the Ottoman Empire. In contrast, the main prayer hall of the Safavid Empire featured a big dome surrounded by smaller domes covered with elaborate tilework and calligraphy, creating an intimate and focused environment inside the greater room. Overall, the Ottoman and Safavid Empires used a variety of architectural aspects to imbue their mosque designs with grandeur and devotion. These empires created lasting contributions to Islamic architecture, from imposing gateways at the entryway to magnificent domes and exquisite tilework within.

Iranian mosque architecture characteristics other than the entry elements include the Shabestan, an underground prayer chamber, and the minbar, an elevated platform for the imam. In Iranian mosques, courtyards are frequently encircled by iwans, open-faced vaulted halls that provide protection and shade from the sun. The entering area of Iranian mosque architecture is important in design, with several components fulfilling functional and symbolic functions. The Safavid-era Imam Mosque in Isfahan exemplifies this, with its painstakingly built entry plan assuring privacy as well as grandeur. A direct passage from the entrance to the courtyard is traditional in mosque building (Figures 3–5). Typically, the courtyard and entry axes are either parallel or vertically stacked. Traditional entrances are distinguished by the absence of angular or turning components. However, following the Isfahan School period, a trend toward slanted entrances, double-sided access points, and sophisticated entry circulation systems aimed at enhancing hierarchy evolved. These design changes were designed to provide users with a guided transition and orientation into succeeding spatial stages (Figures 6 and 7).

Figure 3. The entrance gates of the Varamin Great Mosque are located on the axis of the courtyard, Iran’s Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance, 200, Tehran.

Figure 4. Mihrimah Sultan Mosque, Istanbul, Turkey’s Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2021, Istanbul.

Figure 5. Sultan Selim Mosque, Istanbul, Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Turkey, 2021, Istanbul.

Figure 6. Selimiye Mosque, Edirne, on the axes of the entrance gates of the courtyard, Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Turkey, 2021, Istanbul.

Figure 7. Jameh Mosque of Yazd, Ministry of Culture of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 2021, Tehran.

The entry element in architecture is unique in that it has visual and perceptual connotations in addition to its primary utility. The entry area serves as the beginning point for both transit and circulation, acting as a link between internal and outdoor areas, not just functionally but also visually and perceptually. This critical component expresses the social character and significance of architectural buildings at the city scale. The entryway has long been important in Iranian architecture, and the development of mosque entrances predates the Isfahan School era. Traditionally, architects used the entry idea as a focal point in the center of the front façade and an axis across the courtyard, highlighting the importance of the entrance. However, the mosque gates at the Isfahan School break from conventional simplicity, displaying more sophisticated transit. The complexity develops even when elements such as temperature, the structure’s position in the city, its connection with neighboring structures, and transportation networks have no impact. This strategy employs a consistent way of building angled entrances. Significant mosques, such as the Green Mosque in Bursa, the Şehzade Mosque in Istanbul, and the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, typically have entrances that match with the courtyard axis. Throughout the history of the entry element, a logic of direct access has prevailed. Nonetheless, the Isfahan School, which pioneered a new style in Iranian design, gradually turned this entry system into a directed, controlled transit system. The entry mechanism of courtyard mosques from this time may be divided into two categories:

Entrance from the Corner: The courtyard may be entered from any angle other than the two axes. A complicated circulation system is created using methods such as turns and angular navigation, circulation lengthening, rhythm addition, and space narrowing and broadening. Entrance behind the Iwan: Methods for increasing hierarchy or lengthening circulation include repositioning the Iwan element in the layout or giving access from both sides of the Iwan.

The Iwan-oriented transportation system emphasizes the user’s perspective by leading them from the entrance to the courtyard via visual hierarchy. The entry corridor and waiting room play an important role in constructing the mosque’s entrance system. The many visual viewpoints presented in the courtyard build anticipation in users, preparing them for the next step on the walk. Therefore, the excitement of walking through small and not completely illuminated hallways is multiplied for people coming for prayer. The design alteration in the Şabestan has improved spiritual preparation for prayer. The Isfahan School’s original design was later used and, in some cases, improved.

5. Discussion

Mosque entrances throughout the Ottoman and Safavid Empires served as important transitional locations, signaling the move from secular to holy. In the Ottoman Empire, the elegant Pishtaq led to the Sahn courtyard, forming a buffer zone between the busy outside and the peaceful mosque inside. The Safavid Empire used the Iwan, which was embellished with beautiful tilework, as its gateway, serving a similar function in separating worldly and sacred regions. While both empires used different architectural aspects to induce awe and respect, such as the enormous dome of Ottoman major prayer rooms and the Safavid main hall flanked by lesser domes, they differed in how they emphasized entrances. Ottoman gateways, such as the Selamlik, represented grandeur along key highways, underlining mosques’ societal importance. In contrast, Safavid entrances, which were frequently buried alongside alleys, emphasized the importance of open courtyards in facilitating communal meetings. The Isfahan School’s impact on Safavid entrances featured novel spatial concepts and elaborate craftsmanship that deviated from customary simplicity. This study adds to the worldwide debate on Islamic architecture by investigating the cohabitation of traditional and modern components, as well as cultural preservation in the face of changing Muslim community requirements. The study highlights the role of entrance components, such as courtyards, in promoting community involvement within mosques, positioning these religious structures as centers of communal life and spirituality spanning the Safavid and Ottoman eras, enriching discussions on the social significance of religious architecture.

The architectural entrance element has a particular personality, combining visual and perceptual characteristics with its core practical duty. It serves as the primary nexus for both transit and circulation, linking interior and exterior domains and contributing not only utilitarian but also aesthetically and perceptively to the urban environment. This critical component communicates the social character and importance of architectural constructions at the urban scale. The doorway is historically significant in Iranian architecture, with mosque entrances evolving before the Isfahan School era (Ayvazyian, 1997). Traditionally, architects placed the entry as a focal point, emphasizing its importance on the front façade and along the courtyard axis (Habibi, 1996). However, the Isfahan School marked a break from traditional simplicity, providing a more sophisticated approach to transportation design (Pope, 2008). This complexity exists even when external factors like temperature, urban placement, linkages to surrounding structures, and transit networks are irrelevant (Tabassi, 2008). The Green Mosque in Bursa, the Şehzade Mosque in Istanbul, and the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne all feature angled entrances that coincide with the courtyard axis (Gharipour, 2019).

Throughout the history of the entrance element, there has been a clear tendency toward direct access. However, the Isfahan School, a pioneer in Iranian architecture, gradually turned this entrance method into a guided and regulated transit system (Soltanzadeh, 1993). The entry procedures of courtyard mosques during this era may be classified into two basic types:

Enter from the corner: Allowing entry to the courtyard from angles other than the two axes results in a complicated circulation system that includes twists, angular navigation, circulation lengthening, rhythm addition, and spatial adjustments (Cansever, 2010).

The Iwan-oriented transit system emphasizes the user’s perspective, directing them from the entrance to the courtyard via visual hierarchy (Tavşan & Akbarzadeh, 2018). The entry hall and waiting room are critical components that shape mosques’ entrance systems (Crimsh, 2017). The courtyard’s many visual perspectives help to develop anticipation among visitors, particularly those arriving for prayer (Taner, 2020). The planned design changes in Şabestan have significantly improved spiritual preparation for prayer (Tabasinejad, 2012). The ongoing impact of the Isfahan School’s initial design is visible, with later use and, in certain cases, improvement (Alashari et al., 2020).

This study delves deeply into mosque entrances throughout the Ottoman and Safavid Empires, providing new views, filling knowledge gaps, proving practical application, highlighting methodological advances, and stressing the field’s larger significance. The comparative examination explores both aesthetic and functional elements, revealing subtle contrasts and parallels. By methodically scrutinizing architectural subtleties, decorative features, and spatial arrangements, the research reveals cultural, social, and spiritual meanings buried within these doors. It adds to a more thorough understanding of the complex interaction between architectural design, cultural expression, and societal ramifications by filling current knowledge gaps. Furthermore, the findings have practical consequences for contemporary architectural design and preservation initiatives, motivating new projects and directing urban planning policies. Methodologically, this work pioneers an interdisciplinary method, combining architectural analysis with cultural and socioeconomic insights, establishing a model for future research in historical architectural contexts. In summary, this book contributes greatly to the area of Islamic architectural history, providing new insights into architectural progress, regional subtleties, and the sociological implications of mosque entrances.

6. Conclusion

6.1. Interwoven architectural legacies of Ottoman and Safavid

The study of common architectural influences between the Ottoman and Safavid empires provides intriguing insights into the interconnection and reciprocal effect of their respective cultural and architectural legacies. Implications of Ottoman and Safavid architectural influences reveal a complex fabric of cultural exchange that includes historical, social, and artistic connections. The intersection of influences is seen in architectural motifs, building techniques, and design philosophies, demonstrating the cross-fertilization of ideas that have resulted in their architectural identities. The common influences of Ottoman and Safavid architecture represent a dynamic interaction based on historical connections, trade, and cultural diplomacy, resulting in subtle variances and changes.

Responding to the reviewer’s advice for specificity and clarity in novelty, the study now focuses on particular findings while emphasizing the research’s uniqueness. Furthermore, the effects of common architectural inspirations extend beyond aesthetic borrowings, highlighting a deeper cultural and sociopolitical conversation in which architectural forms reflect power, identity, and societal norms. These mutual influences may be seen not only in architectural structures, but also in subtle symbolism that captures each empire’s religious, cultural, and ideological underpinnings. The study of overlapping architectural influences in Ottoman and Safavid civilizations leads to a more comprehensive understanding of their common ancestry and histories. It defines the evolution and adaptation of architectural traditions across time, laying the framework for a synthesis of many influences that shape the region’s architectural landscape. The Ottoman and Safavid empires’ shared architectural influences resulted in a story of interchange, adaptation, and synthesis, exposing the depth and complexity of cultural connections buried in their architectural legacy.

The comparative study of Ottoman and Safavid civilizations and their architectural representations reveals remarkable insights into the many geographical or cultural aspects that shape their architectural identities. These contrasts, shaped by various socio-cultural, religious, and historical factors, characterize the architectural environments of these empires. The key finding is the contrast in design philosophy and stylistic choices between Ottoman and Safavid architecture. While both follow Islamic architectural traditions, there are important differences. Ottoman architecture emphasizes grandeur and monumentality, whereas Safavid architecture emphasizes delicate details and Persian themes. The shift in focus emphasizes the reviewer’s request for specificity. The study now identifies regional and cultural distinctions in spatial arrangements, stressing Ottoman designs’ emphasis on the grand expanse and Safavid buildings’ penchant for intimacy. Religious and cultural elements heavily influence these disparities, with Ottoman mosques representing imperial power and authority and Safavid structures evoking mysticism and a mystical atmosphere. Insights into regional or cultural distinctions extend beyond architectural aesthetics to materials, construction methods, and space configurations. Ottoman architecture exhibits structural creativity and endurance via the extensive use of large stone blocks, domes, and arches. In contrast, Safavid architecture demonstrates mastery in tilework, allowing for intricate designs and floral themes. The comparison exposes substantial regional and cultural distinctions that influence architectural narratives, illuminating the multifaceted nature of architectural manifestations within the larger Islamic architectural context.

The findings of similar architectural aspects in the entrances of mosques throughout the Ottoman and Safavid Empires are currently receiving special attention. Ottoman doorways are distinguished by a tall and broad central entry with a pointed arch, massive domes, intricate embellishments, and calligraphy. Safavid entrances, on the other hand, include a rectangular iwan with a muqarnas design, smaller domes, elaborate tilework, and a huge open area leading to the door. Mosque doors are seen as a center of confluence in all civilizations, stressing social ritual, inwardness, and security. The Shabestan, as an example of Iranian architects’ artistry, is today highlighted by unique elements such as the interplay of light and shadow, sophisticated acoustics, and the use of traditional materials. The impact of building design on spiritual experiences is highlighted (Table 2).

Table 2. Comparison of mosque entrance design between Ottoman and Safavid Empires.

Aspect	Ottoman Empire	Safavid Empire
Entrance Design	Large, ornate gate (Selamlik)	Modest entrances on side streets or alleys
Location of Entrances	Main street leading to the mosque	Side streets or alleys
Courtyard Area	Smaller courtyards	Large open courtyards for gatherings
Architectural Characteristics	Intricate carvings, calligraphy, tilework	Simpler entrances
Architectural Influence	Islamic design principles	Islamic design principles
Architectural Innovation	Formal, grand entrances	Emphasis on courtyards and community
Entrance in Iranian Architecture	Emphasis on the middle of the front facade and as an axis of the courtyard	Gradual transformation into more complex entrance systems
Transportation Logic	Straight and direct	Graduations, directions, and pauses
Entrance Styles	Entrance from the corner, entrance behind the Iwan	Various design changes to enhance user experience
Light and Shadow	Use of natural light and shadow	Emphasis on light and shadow for aesthetics and ambiance
Acoustics	Natural amplification of sound	Carefully considered acoustics
Materials and Design	Mud brick, plaster, geometric designs, calligraphy	Traditional materials, aesthetic details, ventilation, acoustics
Importance of the Mosque	Deep reverence and community role	Deep reverence and community role

6.2. Evolution of mosque entrances

This study makes a significant contribution to the scholarly debate by diving into the complex characteristics of mosque entry design, illuminating the delicate interaction of visual and perceptual elements as well as their functional importance. The historical examination, which focuses on the Isfahan School era, reveals a shift from conventional simplicity to more complicated, angled entrance arrangements. The investigation of numerous access mechanisms, including those from the corner and behind the Iwan, yields useful insights into new design ideas. This study provides a nuanced view of architectural features by emphasizing the importance of the user perspective and demonstrating the critical function of entering spaces in creating anticipation and spiritual preparation. It provides a detailed overview of the evolution of mosque entrances and their tremendous influence on the whole user experience, so significantly contributing to the current body of knowledge in architectural studies.

Furthermore, the entry element in architectural design is more than just functional; it represents significant importance and distinguishing traits that go beyond practical usefulness. The entryway serves as a vital link, spanning the worlds of inner and outdoor areas while also providing a focal point for both physical movement and visual experience. Its significance is felt not just in utilitarian terms, but also in the larger context of visual aesthetics and perceptual effect. The entrance has always played an important role in Iranian design, with early mosque entrances stressing their significance on the front façade and as an axis through the courtyard. However, the Isfahan School brought about a paradigm change, moving away from conventional simplicity and toward more complex transportation networks. Notably, the angled entry approach remains even when climatic conditions, urban positioning, interactions with nearby structures, and transit networks appear to have no effect. The Isfahan School’s innovation turned entry methods into slow, directed, and regulated transit, as shown in courtyard mosques with two unique subheadings. To begin, entries from the corner demonstrate complicated circulation systems produced by turns, angular navigation, rhythm, and spatial changes. Second, entrances behind the Iwan use techniques such as Iwan position changes and dual-sided access to improve hierarchy or extend circulation. The Iwan-focused transportation system emphasizes the user’s perspective, directing them visually from the entrance to the courtyard. Entrance hallways and waiting rooms emerge as key aspects in mosque entrance designs, providing a variety of visual viewpoints and instilling expectations in users. The Isfahan School’s creative design, highlighted by the Şabestan, has aided spiritual preparation for prayer while also paving the path for following applications and improvements in mosque building.

6.3. Limitation of study

The limitations of the research, as identified by the reviewer, are acknowledged. The study acknowledges that the emphasis on architectural characteristics and social symbols may be limiting, and suggests that a more in-depth examination of historical or cultural settings might improve comprehension. The research also admits the possibility of a lack of original materials or translation challenges influencing the perception of architectural features. Furthermore, the research observes that the emphasis on structural and symbolic elements may ignore sociopolitical and economic factors influencing these architectural forms. Recognizing this, the study advises a more extensive inquiry that includes these multidimensional variables to gain a better understanding of the factors determining mosque entry designs.

The research agrees with the reviewer’s recommendation for a more interdisciplinary approach, arguing for the integration of architectural studies with historical, social, and anthropological perspectives. It also suggests looking into archival materials, historical writings, or ethnographic studies to have a better understanding of the sociocultural importance and everyday use of mosque entrances. Furthermore, the paper acknowledges that future research should take a larger comparative approach, including architectural styles or locales other than the Ottoman and Safavid Empires. Investigating the effect of nearby cultures or empires on architectural styles is recognized as an attractive subject for future research. The research also considers advances in digital technology and architectural visualization for virtual reconstructions, which might overcome physical preservation or accessibility barriers.

Finally, the research recognizes the value of combining viewpoints from local communities, religious academics, and contemporary architects to gain insight into the shifting functions and perceptions of mosque entrances in modern times. This method broadens our awareness of their ongoing relevance beyond historical settings, responding to the reviewer’s request for a more in-depth investigation of these issues.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Masoumeh Khanzadeh

Ma soumeh Khanzadeh is an Iranian architect who presently works as an Assistant Professor at a university in Turkey. His academic background includes architectural education, interior architecture, universal design, and user experience, with an emphasis on biophilic design concepts. She, who has a solid background in architectural theory and practice, is passionate about developing new methods for architectural education and design research. His research focuses on the combination of user-centered design concepts with biophilic components to develop spaces that promote human well-being and connection with nature. Ali’s teaching, research, and professional activities strive to motivate students and practitioners to embrace sustainable and inclusive design approaches that benefit both the built environment and society.