Climate crisis literacy through media: a positive discourse analysis of selected Nepali media content

Abstract

This article investigates the role of Nepali mass media, including radio, television programs, news reports, and editorials, in disseminating information and fostering awareness about the climate change and its consequences. The analysis, from the perspective of positive discourse analysis (PDA), reveals that Nepali mass media is using informative language to convey messages about the climate crisis. It also shows that Nepali media is actively working for climate action, urgently calling on individuals and societies to take preventive measures against potential environmental threats. Simultaneously, it also conveys, amidst the challenges, a sense of hope for a better future. This optimism is grounded in the belief that coordination and collaboration for climate change adaptation functions as a catalyst for questioning established societal norms and nurturing public consciousness.

Keywords:

• Climate change
• climate crisis
• Nepali media
• positive discourse analysis (PDA), media literacy

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Jeroen van de Weijer, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China

SUBJECTS:

• Environmental Studies
• Climate Change
• Environmental Communication
• Mass Communication
• Media Communication
• Discourse Analysis
• Pragmatics

Introduction

Climate change is a severe problem that has been affecting the entire world and Nepal is not an exception (Anderson, 2009; Forsyth, 2021; Government of Nepal, 2019; Government of Nepal, 2022; Uprety et al., 2017). Though Nepal is one of the negligible contributors to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, it is highly vulnerable to climate and disaster risks (Government of Nepal, 2019; Mbah et al., 2022; The World Bank Group, 2022a) as evident in the gradual increase in annual temperature (Gentle & Maraseni, 2012; K C & Thapa Parajuli, 2015), delayed monsoon (Macchi et al., 2015), decrease in the volume and timing change of snowfall (Manandhar et al., 2011), changes in water resources and increasing drought, alteration in the phenology of trees and agricultural crops (Lamsal et al., 2017), monsoon withdrawal (Aryal, 2023), melting glaciers, flooding rivers and landslides. Moreover, climate change and global warming have a severe impact on the national gross domestic product (The World Bank Group, 2022b). Despite these adversities, Nepali people seem conscious and informed about the negative consequences of environmental hazards (Colom & Pradhan, 2013) and Nepal government is committed to achieving its goal of net zero emissions from 2020 to 2030 and full net zero by 2045. Moreover, it has set clear targets for climate action and envisioned bold policymaking, social transformation, and technological advancements that will lead to a carbon-neutral, inclusive, and climate-resilient future (Government of Nepal, 2021, 2022).

The history shows that media is always a key player in shaping public discourse and policy agenda vis-à-vis pressing issues whether it is awareness of disasters and increasing disaster preparedness (Romo-Murphy & Vos, 2014) or political change (Castells, 2000; Timsina & Baral, 2023) or political campaign (Levitsky & Lucan, 2010) or climate change (Anderson, 2009; Boykoff, 2014). The media functions as a public platform to express opinions and concerns, to organize against autocracy and influence policy formulations. Despite some arguments about the dark side of media and media technology (Downs, 2019), in Nepali context, mass media (radio and television programs, newspaper articles, and documentaries), through positive use of language, is playing a key role in spreading awareness about the dire consequences of climate change and appealing to the public to treat ‘nature’ as a participant (Goatly, 2002) and a healer (Baral, 2021) rather than a marginal subject. At this juncture, PDA becomes an appropriate perspective to look at the positive efforts made by Nepali media because PDA ‘analyzes the discourse we like rather than the discourse we wish to criticize’ (Macgilchrist, 2007, p. 74). In the case of media and climate issue, PDA sees how linguistic features contribute to bringing awareness and positive vibes among the people. This ecolinguistic analysis becomes important in understanding the impact of media language on shaping perceptions and attitudes towards climate issues in Nepali context. Against this backdrop, this article addresses the following research question:

What linguistic strategies and approaches are employed by Nepali mass media to disseminate information and educate the population about the potential crises stemming from climate change?

Country context

Nepal is a mountainous country located between India and China. Its geography and climate are highly vulnerable; it measures more than 800 kilometers (about 500 miles) of the Himalayas, and has ‘fragile mountainous topography and ecosystems, highly variable monsoon-driven hydrology, unplanned settlements, and a lack of resilient infrastructure’ (Government of Nepal, 2022, p. 11). It has eight mountains higher than eight thousand meters, including Mt. Everest, the highest peak in the world (Nepal Tourism Board), and many rivers, glaciers, and lakes. Earthquakes, floods, and landslides are the most damaging natural problems Nepal has been facing so far. Given Nepal’s susceptibility to climate crisis, educating its people is imperative and, for this purpose, mass media becomes very instrumental tool because of its far-reaching capabilities across the nation’s diverse landscapes for disseminating crucial information.

Literature review

Climate crisis as a global phenomenon

We are in the age of polycrisis (United Nations, 2023a). Climate change and its subsequent crisis is one of them that the entire world is worried about at present. The United Nations (n.d.b) regards climate change as ‘the defining issue of our time’ and recommends for a ‘drastic action today’ if one does not want to bear ‘difficult and costly’ consequences in the near future (para. 1). That’s why, United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (Goal 13) urges to ‘Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts’ because ‘climate cataclysm [is] looming’ around us (United Nations, n.d.a, para. 1). If it goes unchecked, the average global temperatures will increase beyond 3 °C, which will adversely affect every ecosystem (para. 9).

Recently (30 November–12 December 2023), nearly 200 parties of the world gathered for UN Climate Change Conference in the United Arab Emirates. They discussed the ongoing consequences of climate change and negotiated for the ‘Beginning of the End’ of the fossil fuel era (United Nations, 2023b). The UN chief António Guterres, in its closing ceremony called for global cooperation to cope up with this global issue of our generation.

The brief discussion above shows how urgent it is to address climate issues globally. As our focus in this article is with the linguistic strategies and approaches used by Nepali mass media to make people living in the different parts of the country aware, the succeeding sections explore this relationship.

Climate change, mass media, and Nepal

Nepal is in climate-change prone zone (Government of Nepal, 2022). In a report, Eckstein et al. (2021) informed Nepal’s climate risk index (CRI) is 10 (with CRI score of 31.33), meaning it is at a higher risk of climate related vulnerabilities. Not only that, but the report also warned ‘to be prepared for more frequent and/or more severe events in the future’ (p. 3) because processes like glacier melting, sea levels rising, ocean warming, and acidification are taking place rapidly. Similarly, the results of a research (Uprety et al., 2017) conducted in three Himalayan Village District Committees (VDC) in three different districts of Nepal showed a dark picture of climate change consequences. It demonstrated that the local people of those areas perceived an increase in the frequency of fire, flood, landslide, and avalanche; the temperature had already increased. Their research concluded that climate change already impacted the lives of local communities, and they were ‘spontaneously developing adaptive livelihood strategies’ (p. 649).

There has been a limited body of research that shows the relationship between environmental issues and mass media in Nepal. Shrestha (2012), in her research, found that the nature of environmental media is elitist, and the elite experts used the media as a discursive terrain by marginalizing the contribution of the public to the environmental agenda. Drawing on the case of Nepal, Khatri et al. (2016) concluded that the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) discourse was controlled by a small group of experts, disregarding the active participation of local communities responsible for forest management. Although some citizen networks were involved in the REDD + policy process, there was a noticeable absence of media discussions vis-à-vis equity concerns, such as fair representation of all stakeholders and fair distribution of benefits. Likewise, using data from a radio program and six focus groups, Shrestha et al. (2014) discovered that climate change was understood as an undeniable reality, attributing its occurrence and national consequences to the actions of Western countries. They also noticed that despite the prominence of climate change in radio headlines, local governmental issues garnered significantly more attention in focus group discussions.

National and international reports and efforts

Because of the pressing nature of the climate crisis, several research studies have been conducted to investigate its various dimensions and consequences. This urgent focus reflects a global recognition of the severity of the situation and the need for comprehensive understanding and effective solutions. The World Bank Group (2022b), for example, revealed that as the consequences of climate change and global warming, Nepal’s gross domestic product (GDP) is being affected and this impact is likely to increase in the future (Government of Nepal, 2019). This effect, as mentioned in the World Bank Group report, is evident through increased flooding, heat stress on labor productivity and health, and negative effects on crops and livestock, all of which ultimately impede economic growth. This also added that marginalized groups, such as women and indigenous people, are disproportionately affected by these climate-related challenges; this conclusion was further supported by Hopton and Rajan (2023). To address these consequences of climate change, Nepal is implementing the Green, Resilient, and Inclusive Development (GRID) approach and policy frameworks to address climate change, waste management, forest regulation, and land use (Government of Nepal, 2022). Moreover, Nepal is emphasizing resilience, disaster risk management, and financing for climate action to protect Nepal’s development and poverty reduction (Mbah et al., 2022; The World Bank Group, 2022a). However, effective implementation and prioritized investments are always challenging in the contexts of developing countries like Nepal because they have ‘lower coping capacity’ (Eckstein et al., 2021).

The full report of The World Bank Group (2022a) exposed the growing climate-related hazards, their heightened impact on marginalized groups of people, and their significant impacts in areas like health, productivity, and economic output. But the report is optimistic as it points out low-carbon and climate-resilient opportunities in Nepal that include ‘development of hydropower [for consumption and sale to neighbors], … clean cooking solutions, electric vehicles, and solar energies’ (p. 8). It appreciated Nepal’s efforts to digitize its economy so that it can support a low-carbon and climate-resilient economy, transition toward a greener economy, and high-value sustainable tourism. But Eckstein et al. (2021) projected a grim picture of climate change-induced consequences. Between 2000 and 2019, in the world, more than 475,000 people lost their lives because of more than 11,000 extreme weather events. Nepal has been experiencing extreme weather conditions like landslides and flooding every year and hundreds of people are losing their lives, and due to excessive snow melting in the Himalayas, lakes like Tsho Rolpa are at risk of explosion (Hersher, 2023). Augustin (2021) reported that the Himalayas are heating up at rates up to 0.7 °C (1.3 °F) higher than the global average, resulting in the communities living in the Himalayas already at high risk. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 degrees warned that the world has 12 years to keep warming at this level, or it will face worse risks of drought, floods, heat, and poverty (Masson-Delmotte et al., 2019).

The Government of Nepal is vigilant about the repercussions of climate change. The Government of Nepal (2019) in its ‘National Climate Change Policy’ emphasized public awareness and stakeholder engagement. It highlighted the importance of raising awareness among the public and engaging stakeholders in climate change actions. The policy advocated for the active involvement of communities, civil society organizations, and the private sector in planning, implementing, and monitoring climate change initiatives. By fostering inclusive participation and collaboration, this policy urges to build a strong collective effort in addressing climate crisis and its impacts.

Although there is a consensus among the researchers, government, and international agencies vis-à-vis the dreadful impacts of climate change and they are showing the need for urgent action to not let the situation exacerbate, we should not forget the positive roles being played by media to create awareness among the Nepali people. So, we mostly focus on how programs created for private as well as government owned media networks and national dailies are televising, airing, and writing climate related issues with the aim of disseminating information to the public and creating awareness against climate change; both in the urban areas and in the hinterlands of the Himalayas. Therefore, this study contributes to the literature by highlighting a positive discourse created by media in effectively disseminating important messages vis-à-vis the climate change and its consequences.

Methodology

We incorporated a diverse range of texts, including articles, newspaper editorials, news reports, interviews with experts and authorities telecasted on TV and radio, and a documentary. These sources were selected purposefully from major Nepali broadsheets, television networks, and radio stations, both government-owned and privately run. We chose 17 media content (10 newspaper articles and news reports, 4 television programs, 2 radio programs and a documentary) published, aired, broadcasted, and telecasted in the last 3 years (2021–2023). Most of these texts were originally in English language, and a few of them, which were in Nepali language were translated into English (only the portion needed for citation) by the authors. The selection of such a broad spectrum of sources allowed us to capture the broad public sentiment and media representation. We accounted for regional disparities in media access, acknowledging that radio serves as a vital source of information in remote areas of Nepal, but it takes quite a long time for newspapers to reach these destinations, while urban areas benefit from readily available television broadcasts and daily newspapers. This approach ensured a comprehensive and inclusive analysis of the subject matter.

We used positive discourse analysis (Bartlett, 2012; Macgilchrist, 2007; Martin, 2004, 2012; Stibbe, 2017) as a perspective to analyze the aforementioned media content. This analysis was centered on examining the role of the media in disseminating information and raising awareness about the climate crisis. We investigated how media language, and its linguistic approaches and strategies like radical reframing and levels of explanations for its success (see Macgilchrist, 2007) contribute to addressing this environmental challenge, including the guidance and solutions it offers or alternative courses of action. Furthermore, our focus extended to how media texts encourage individuals to take positive steps in addressing climate-related issues and how they assist stakeholders in achieving environmental goals. We closely examined the influence of expert opinions, their word choice and the voices from concerned authorities in fostering a positive outlook among the public, which, after all, contributes to a more optimistic and solution-oriented discourse on climate-related matters.

Analysis: transition from climate change ‘crisis’ to climate change ‘adaptation’

We have analyzed the media content (news reports, newspaper editorials, TV and radio interviews, documentary) keeping the following four perspectives in mind: the changing global scenario of climate change crisis, the reference of Nepal within the context of the climate change crisis, projections of the future, and hope within despair.

Positive Discourse Analysis (PDA) in the context of the environment is characterized by a focus on constructive and solution-oriented language and communication. It looks to promote optimism, hope, and collaborative efforts in addressing environmental challenges such as climate change, pollution, and biodiversity loss. It focuses on discourses of hope and transformation (Rogers, 2018) and intends to know ‘how change happens, for the better, across a range of sites’ (Martin, 2004, p. 9). The discussion, in this article, has been made on how Nepali media has informed Nepali people and disseminated alternatives and solutions to tackle the climate crisis.

The changing global scenario of climate change crisis

The role of Nepali mass media is instrumental as it plays a significant role in disseminating positive messages, shaping public opinions, and influencing policy decisions. History witnesses how mass media can act as a powerful platform for displaying environmental success stories and inspiring action, thereby contributing to a more constructive and hopeful discourse about environmental challenges (Dutt, 2023; Tilwankar et al., 2019; United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP], 2022).

The climate change literacy practice performed by the Nepali media unravels the global climate change scenario. The role of media is significant in enhancing climate change consciousness in the minds of Nepali public; it circulates critical information and triggers a feeling of responsibility to play a positive role to act and protect the natural world. Kalwar’s (2021) reference to the IPCC (in forcing Nepal to act against climate change) in his report in The Himalayan Times shows that many government panels have been striving to fight climate change in many ways. His expression ‘Climate change has now turned into a climate crisis’ creates a sense of urgency among the readers. On its surface, such expression may sound alarming, but it has asked its readers to act positively against the climate crisis. Similarly, the emphatic statement like ‘Active participation from all sectors, such as the public and government, is required to reduce the adverse effects of climate change’ draws attention of the readers towards a unified action that will minimize the adverse effects of climate change.

There are also newspaper editorials that have played an influential role in disseminating a positive tone and attitude toward the climate change crisis in the context of Nepali mediascape. An editorial of The Himalayan Times (‘Climate change impacts’, 2022b), for example, refers to the increasing temperatures across South Asia as reported by the Country Climate and Development Report (CCDR) in the World Bank Group and pokes people by stating climate and disaster risks are causing threats to its people, economy, environment, and development achievements. The news highlights the climate change crisis with the use of the expressions like ‘temperatures rise’ and ‘climate and disaster risks’. These terms are familiar to the audience because they are connected to the real-life experiences of people across the globe. This editorial highlights ‘adaptation’ as a ray of hope – ‘Adaptation can reduce many of the impacts of climate change’.

Likewise, in a news report, The Himalayan Times (‘Nepal sets’, 2022c) reports on Nepal’s participation in the 27th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP27) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2022. The news states that the government of Nepal will table ‘the issues concerning the impact of climate change on the mountain region with utmost priority’. The news report uses plenty of expressions – ‘special priorities, ‘allegiance to achieve ‘net zero’ carbon emissions’, ‘adaptation’, ‘reduce greenhouse gas as a matter of national commitment for implementation’ – that encourage to deal with the climate change concerns. Through these terms, the news makes its readers more conscious of calling for action against climate change disasters.

Besides news reports, there are television discussions and interactions that have spread hope vis-à-vis climate related issues amidst the challenges. A television show telecasted on Kantipur TV HD (2022), for example, shares a story about the global climate crisis: During the 1980s, the world was ‘warming’; 90s ‘changing’; 2000s ‘frightening’; 2010 onwards, it is getting ‘urgent’. This episode entitled ‘Tackling the Climate Crisis, Kantipur Conclave 2022’ distributes the ways we should adapt to fight climate change crisis. The interlocutors unanimously agree that ‘taking action’ such as ‘vulnerability analysis’, and ‘hillside protection’ are not only necessary but also urgent in the context of Nepal.

Nepal and the climate change crisis

Nepali media is disseminating awareness on the issue of climate change and its consequences through informative and alarmist use of language that is guided by the motif of improvement. Talking about the relationship between language and power, Fairclough (1995) observes ‘in discourse … consent is achieved, ideologies are transmitted, and practices, meanings, values and identities are taught and learnt …. [And] mass media [has become] probably the single most important social institution in bringing off these processes in contemporary societies’ (p. 219). One of the worth-sharing aspects of media literacy is that it instigates a positive discourse by dragging the attention of the audience to the discourse of the climate crisis. According to Kalwar (2021), Nepal seeks a comprehensive strategy, the Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC), which includes 14 distinct goals in collaboration with the UN program aiming at reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. A sense of positive initiation has been triggered by this report that states ‘aquaponics practices may be an innovative technology’ in the context of Nepal. When he writes, Nepal’s ‘contribution to greenhouse gas emission is small’, he is arguing that Nepal is not to be blamed for the climate crisis. He further initiates a positive discussion with the statement – ‘the use of electrical appliances in our homes and everyday life with the clean energy produced in the country can help cut down on greenhouse gas emission’.

At this juncture, The Himalayan Times (‘Climate change’, 2022a), summarizing the World Bank Group’s report writes that Nepal’s adoption of the Green, Resilient and Inclusive Development (GRID) approach as a national long-term vision in 2021 is praiseworthy. The news – ‘the integration of climate strategies and actions into development plans, policies, programs, and budgets at all levels of government’ – positivizes the initiation of the Nepal government vis-a-vis climate change adaptation. It further encourages to set ‘packages that can help Nepal to meet the adaptation and resilience priorities’.

Similarly, according to an editorial published in The Himalayan Times (‘Climate change impacts’, 2022b), Nepal has experienced a crisis caused by extreme weather events such as flash floods, landslides, soil erosion, droughts, hailstorms, and even wildfires in recent times, causing substantial hardships, particularly for its farming population. The crisis of these ongoing climate changes and extreme occurrences has already resulted in an estimated 2% loss of Nepal’s GDP, a figure that has been projected to rise to 2.2–3% by 2050. However, this is not the end of the story; it suggests for the actions to keep the ‘hope’ alive: ‘Nepal must be prepared to mitigate these effects where possible. If this is not feasible, then it must adapt to them to reduce their impacts on the lives and livelihoods of its people’. Here, the word choice like ‘mitigate’, ‘reduce’ and ‘adapt’, which comes under ‘lexicogrammatical elements’ in Macgilchrist’s (2007) categorization, gives a sense of positivity while preparing the fight against climate crisis. Similarly, defining ‘adaptation’ and ‘reduction’ The Himalayan Times (‘Nepal sets’, 2022c) reports these two are the key actions required in Nepali context in order to address the climate issues. The news report writes, ‘Adaptation means adapting to life in a changing climate while reduction means reducing carbon emissions, the major cause of greenhouse gas effect’.

Furthermore, Nepal’s recent participation in the 28th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP28) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) gives a message that given Nepal’s vulnerability due to its unique geographical features as mentioned in the previous section, the nation gives importance on addressing climate change impacts in the mountainous regions. Also, Nepal aims to execute an ‘international leadership role in fighting global climate change’ to meet the Sustainable Development Goals (Government of Nepal: National Planning Commission, 2017, p. 3).

This brief discussion above shows that the key concerns of Nepal, while coping with climate issues include climate change adaptation, mitigation, damages and losses, and the crucial matter of climate finance. As reported in The Kathmandu Post (‘Deteriorating’, 2023a), Nepal witnessed a notable decline in air quality, within its capital, Kathmandu, being branded as one of the world’s most polluted cities. Smoke and haze shrouded the Valley due to ongoing wildfires. The Air Quality Index (AQI) reached a very unhealthy level, indicating the potential for widespread health issues. Furthermore, as reported in the news, ICIMOD noted that rising temperatures are accelerating glacier melt rates in the region, potentially resulting in a 50% loss of glaciers if global warming exceeds 2 °C. This could have far-reaching consequences, affecting river flows, freshwater biodiversity, agriculture, drinking water, and various other human needs. The organization also highlighted the role of black carbon and soot from forest fires and crop residue burning in hastening glacier decline. The news reports, ‘… the organization pointed out the recent data on the hazardous levels of particulate matter (PM) that pose a severe risk to human health’. On its surface level, these news and reports sound negative, but in deeper analysis, they are instilling awareness among people about their health, and therefore play a positive role in making people take climate issues much more seriously. These news reports have first created the discourse of the climate change crisis, and then gradually have drawn the attention of the public to the possibilities of creating a better future through climate change adaptation policies and actions in Nepal.

Projection of the climate change crisis in near future

In an article, Stibbe (2017) appreciates the writings of Rachel Carson, Aldo Leopold, and Loren Eiseley because their writings embody a positive discourse ‘whose linguistic features portray the world in ways that encourage respect for nature’ (Abbamonte, 2022, p. A66). For Stibbe (2017), PDA is ‘a search for new ways of using language’ that ‘encourage[s] us to protect the ecosystem that life depends on and build more socially just societies’ (p. 170). Nepali media shows positive discourse vis-à-vis climate issues by projecting how nature is working. In a news report in The Kathmandu Post, Poudel (2023) argues that the recent surge in vegetable prices and a steep increase in the cost of essential groceries like rice and wheat flour in Nepal are the consequences of extreme weather events that have disrupted agriculture. A prolonged dry spell lasting for months adversely impacted winter crop production, and subsequent rainfall increased the risk of crop damage before harvesting. This alarming rise in the prices of daily necessities underscores the country’s vulnerability to climate change. The reporter brings the reference of everyday life of Nepali people. The expression ‘damage to climate will become irreversible if global temperature rises to 1.5 degrees’ informs the audience about the possible consequences. The term ‘irreversible’ connotes the irreparable effects of climate change and urges people to take some positive actions without delay. In this news report, there is an optimistic note at the end: ‘mitigation measures such as strengthening early warning and weather monitoring systems’ wherein ‘state agencies should collaborate and coordinate to deal with effects of climate change’. In this news, the choice of the words and phrases ‘mitigation measures’, ‘collaboration’, and ‘coordination’ have created a positive climate change discourse that requires collective efforts.

In the same vein, as highlighted in The Himalayan Times (‘Climate change impacts’, 2022b), Nepal relies heavily on glacier-fed rivers, and as glaciers retreat at a worrying rate (by more than 30 meters per year on average), the impacts on water resources and hydropower are substantial. It infers that climate change is no longer an abstract concern for Nepal. The news reports ‘Nepal needs to take an integrated approach to water, agriculture, and forests, harness the hydropower opportunity and energy transition, manage sustainable urbanization, and strengthen low-carbon resilient connectivity’, with terms like ‘integrated approach’ and ‘low-carbon resilient community’ creates hope at the midst of despair.

Drawing upon the findings of the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), The Kathmandu Post (‘Deteriorating’, 2023a) reports that the climate crisis could have far-reaching consequences, affecting river flows, freshwater biodiversity, agriculture, drinking water, and various other human needs. The organization also highlights the role of black carbon and soot from forest fires and crop residue burning in hastening glacier decline. The news accentuates that ‘if global warming exceeds 2 °C, it will result in loss of 50% of the glaciers in the region, leading to changes in river flows which can have serious consequences for freshwater biodiversity, agriculture, drinking water, and other human needs’. Here, the use of the terms such as ‘biodiversity’, ‘agriculture’, ‘drinking water’ etc. necessarily makes the readers think about the future of Nepal amidst the climate crisis. However, in the news report, we can find a very encouraging climate change literacy when it states, ‘The good news is that we know what is causing air pollution…. We urge governments, donors and NGOs to work with us to build a coalition to really drive action on clean air’. In this expression, positive discourse has been created by informing the public that when we know the cause, we can easily find the solution as well. Hence, it is a solution-directed discourse wherein the intention is to encourage people to fight against the climate crisis, positively influencing human actions.

Hope within despair: a discourse of media literacy

Positive discourse means narratives that offer an alternative by analyzing and promoting discourse that highlights success stories, practical solutions, and emancipatory alternatives (Martin, 2004). It empowers individuals and communities to take environment friendly actions, engages stakeholders in collective responsibility (Bartlett, 2012) and assesses the potential for reframing to encourage more productive discussions on environmental issues (Fill & Muhlhauser, 2001). Nepali media has been constructive in these matters – by encouraging people in terms of climate change adaptation discourse. According to Kalwar (2021), Nepal requires active participation from multiple sectors, encompassing both the public and government, to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change effectively. The news report proposes a solution – ‘Maintaining risk reduction strategies like emergency awareness programmes and shifting traditional agricultural practices for food security by using natural barriers are ways to combat the adverse effect of climate change’. It gives a positive impression that the climate change crisis has solutions as well. It further urges for ‘active participation from all sectors, such as the public and government’, because it ‘is required to reduce the adverse effects of climate change’.

Likewise, a more recent editorial of The Himalayan Times (‘Time for action’, 2023) disseminates the reports that Nepal has pledged to achieve net zero emissions by 2045’ which is a ‘drive to replace fossil-fuel vehicles with electric ones should also be accelerated to achieve the goal’. Such optimistic reports encourage the public to reduce the climate change adversities anywhere in the world.

Additionally, as reported in The Himalayan Times (‘Nepal sets priority’, 2022c), climate change adaptation in Nepali context involves acclimatizing to the challenges posed by a changing climate, while mitigation concerns around reducing carbon emissions, which is the cause of greenhouse gas effect. The news urges Nepal to have ‘special priorities on issues such as climate change adaptation and reduction, climate finance, specific issues of mountain region and financing for climate losses and damages’. Thus, since the news report distinguishes the priority areas, it creates positive vibes for the possibility of working against the climate crisis.

Similarly, as reported in The Kathmandu Post (‘Deteriorating’, 2023a), Nepal should examine the far-reaching consequences, affecting river flows, freshwater biodiversity, agriculture, drinking water, and various other human needs. It also highlights the role of black carbon and soot from forest fires and crop residue burning in hastening glacier decline. The report reads, ‘Black carbon or soot emitted from forest fires and burning crop residues after harvest can accelerate the melting of high mountain glaciers, further contributing to their decline’. Here, minimizing or eliminating forest fires and crop burning have been presumed to be the solutions to glacier melting.

Moreover, as archived in Facebook Live, Radio Nepal (2022), broadcasted an interview with Bidhya Devi Bhandari, former President of Nepal, who had also once served as the Minister of Environment and Population. She advocates for a biocentric worldview by throwing light on the significance of the ‘co-existence of humans and non-humans on the earth’ (01:45:15–01:45:28). According to her, Nepal needs some ‘unique strategies’ that include ‘agricultural strategies’ to fight against climate change as it is one of the pressing issues of the 21st century. She highlights that though Nepal contributes less to the climate crisis, Nepal needs special policies and actions at once because of its global impacts. The philosophy of co-existence and Nepal’s possible unique strategies –such as reforestation and agriculture – are meaningful in creating positive discourse because they claim the possibilities and opportunities of fighting against the climate crisis in Nepal (Radio Nepal, 2021).

A program telecasted on Kantipur TV HD (2021), which is also accessible on YouTube, argues that ‘Natural disasters were/are balanced by nature, but climate change is not natural, it is caused by humans’ (8:00–8:33). It proposes alternatives to cope with the challenges by formulating hydroelectricity policies and appreciates the ‘reforestation and community forestry’ strategy through the active involvement of the youths (12:55–13:02). In this context, we see the logic that if humans are the causes of the climate crisis, they are or should be the solution too.

In an interview telecasted on June 6 via Nepal Television (2023b), Hari Bahadur K.C., the Director General of the Agriculture Department, argues that agriculture is the backbone of the Nepali economy, and the climate change crisis has caused critical concerns with some unpredictable weather conditions. Therefore, he notifies, the meteorological department has been informing the farmers about the weather updates via radio, FM and television stations, and newspapers; they are asked to use natural fertilizers rather than chemical fertilizers and suggested using local seeds to fight back climate change. It shows how the media informs people about alternatives for not harming the climate anymore. Another interview with Yogendra Subedi, a climate issue-related researcher, telecasted on May 17 via Nepal Television (2023a) informs that landslides, floods, hailstorms, excessive heat, and excessive rain are the consequences of climate change and recommends that the government and people alike should take some positive actions now.

In addition to television broadcasts and interviews, documentaries are also useful medium for climate change literacy. A documentary on ‘Climate Change and Governance in Nepal’ telecasted on AP1HD (2022) shows the climate change crisis as a serious challenge of the 21st century and indicates industrialization and the use of computers as the major causes of carbon dioxide emissions. It shows landslides, flooding, and ‘melting of the water towers’ (Himalayas) are the results of climate change and narrates how apple farms have been changed into infertile hills. The documentary uses various images, visuals, and stories of climate change crises from various parts of the world to literate people about climate change and its impacts. It delivers the message that all the ministries of the government of Nepal should work collectively to minimize the adversities of the climate change crisis. This documentary works as an energizing and enhancing force to disseminate climate change literacy across the country.

Similarly, The Kathmandu Post (‘Contractors’, 2023b) informs about some sustainability measures taken by the government of Nepal in response to climate change: ‘Nepal’s national highways are built, taking sustainability into consideration and by following environmental rules and regulations’. Bringing out such actions to the public is one of the positive media actions. More importantly, Nepali media not only disseminates the stories of hope and possibilities in the national context but also educate Nepali public about climate change literacy by bringing references from the global context. In this regard, the national daily My Republica (2023) reads:

By the end of 2040, the ozone layer is expected to be back in its form … the use of CFCs has decreased 99% since the Montreal Protocol was brought into action…. Just a few weeks back, the Chinese Academy of Sciences released a report showcasing that the air quality in China has improved significantly over the past decade. Similarly, the water quality in Manila Bay has improved. Cities like Zurich have very strict recycling policies and every household is expected to be involved in recycling or pay fines. Washington has also started its carbon emission capping programs. The European Union is chasing its zero pollution action plan and it is Europe’s plan to become the world’s first carbon-neutral continent. Not only that, volunteer scuba divers in the Montreal Bay are helping restore the vital kelp forests or the ‘redwoods of the sea’.

The news report is full of optimism and enthusiasm since it narrates the positive things happening across the globe. The reference of European Union, China, USA, Canada shows that the world has already started to fight climate change crisis, and the results are really motivating. Now, it is the time for Nepali people to expedite climate change literacy and implement some concrete actions.

Discussions and conclusions

The analysis shows how Nepali mass media is actively contributing to the dissemination of information on the severe repercussions of climate change. Though mass media does not bring a panacea for every climate crisis issue, it is an effective medium to make people aware whether they are living in the lap of the Himalayas or in urban areas. The dissemination of expert opinions through television and radio programs or broadcasting and airing the importance of tree plantation and forest preservation contributes to spread awareness about potential disasters and aids in the mitigation of climate change impacts, albeit to a limited extent when compared to the global climate crisis. The best point is that, while covering the issue of climate change challenge, Nepali media has been using that kind of language, which either instigates hope for better future or urges people to prepare for actions. This finding corroborates with Macgilchrist’s (2007) lexicogrammatical elements, one of the explanations under the category of radical reframing, a discursive strategy for countering the mainstream media discourse.

The findings of this research interestingly corroborate earlier studies, indicating that media discourse plays a significant role in motivating individuals to engage in environmental protection efforts as a means of combating climate change and its potentially escalating consequences. The occasional use of alarmist language to illustrate the detrimental consequences of climate change and global warming serves as a catalyst for individuals to exercise cautiousness in addressing the increasingly urgent problems posed by this crisis, which may escalate in severity soon, gives a clear message to change human behaviors thinking about the future of the earth. Furthermore, the media’s representation of climate change literacy serving as a platform for highlighting successful narratives and developing optimistic discussions surrounding environmental concerns justify Dutt (2023), Tilwankar et al. (2019), and UNEP’s (2022) propositions.

The research reveals that Nepal is spreading positive messages to the general public through various media platforms. Despite having many adverse implications of climate change on a global scale, Nepal has shown a positive inclination towards the advancement of renewable energy alternatives, particularly in the form of hydropower (The World Bank Group, 2022a). This strategic pursuit aims to facilitate domestic consumption and commercial trade, ultimately reducing carbon emissions. Most importantly, the ‘National Climate Change Policy’ implemented by the Government of Nepal aims to enhance public engagement in climate change measures.

One of the goals of mass media is to effectively communicate optimistic motivational messages while concurrently instilling a sense of immediacy among people with regard to the matter of climate change transformed into a climate crisis (Kalwar, 2021). The analysis also indicates that Nepali media has been actively promoting awareness among the public about the potential consequences of climate change as well as measures to mitigate its influence, if not eradicate it entirely. The media has a commendable commitment to addressing climate change issues by consistently raising awareness and spreading information about potential solutions to mitigate climate disasters.

The use of language in Nepali media about the climate problem is, to a larger extent, positive, thus capturing public attention and fostering optimism for the future. It is noteworthy that the use of the phrases such as ‘frightening’, ‘changing’, and ‘urgent’ within media discourse, despite their negative appearances, serves to emphasize the pressing nature of sensitive issues and raise awareness with urgency among the audience. One viewpoint posits that the use of such terms in news articles, research papers, interviews, and written works aims to educate the readership. Nevertheless, it is sometimes argued from an opposing perspective that Nepal’s impact on the rise in global temperatures and the escalating climate problem is largely negligible. This perspective promotes a sense of accountability among the audience, prompting them to acknowledge the potential consequences, whether beneficial or detrimental, of their actions.

The terms like ‘mitigate’, ‘reduce’, ‘adapt’ ‘collaborate’, ‘coordinate’, and ‘policymaking’ are indicative of the potential strategies for addressing climate catastrophe. Organizational reports, such as those from ICIMOD, demonstrate that the repercussions of current human activities have severe and significant implications for individual health. The media content shows that instilling constructive mindsets among individuals and motivating them to proactively involve in addressing the potential gravity of forthcoming climate challenges is the need of the hour.

Nepal, a country characterized by a considerable number of glacier-fed rivers, should express concerns about the potential consequences of climate change on several sectors including hydropower, irrigation, and the availability of drinking water. This concern arises from snow being the primary supply of water in the region. The Nepali media, as the analysis shows, is playing a key role in stimulating concerns among individuals about these pressing climate challenges and motivating them to engage in practical actions.

The examination of media discourse has also outlined a course of action to address the potential negative consequences of climate change and its impacts. These sources emphasize the involvement of various sectors in addressing the issue at hand and suggest alternative solutions and preventive measures. These include afforestation and reforestation, community forestry, utilization of alternative and renewable clean energy resources, use of electrically powered devices and equipment at home and offices, adoption of organic fertilizers, use of local seeds, and most importantly, the establishment of comprehensive climate policies and action plans, along with effective governance to ensure their successful implementation.

Nepali media has been consistently reporting on the issue of climate change. This includes the coverage of severe weather phenomena, scientific research, and policy modifications. The hope, portrayed through positive news serves as a model of effective communication to circulate messages of good feelings to the public. It has made a significant impact in combating the problem and developing a kind of confidence for the prepared future.

The media, either by showing the bleak consequences of climate catastrophe or by supplying information related to climate issues in general, has been continuously creating awareness for a safe future ahead. It is calling for urgent action by individuals and societies to take preventive measures against the potential threats or/and spreading the sentiment of hope for the forthcoming times. The source of this optimism stems from the conviction that engaging in such conversations functions as a catalyst for questioning established societal norms and fostering public consciousness. The use of the words like ‘co-existence’, ‘mitigate’, ‘reduce’, ‘adapt’, and ‘hope’ serves as a source of encouragement for individuals to engage in proactive actions. Consequently, individuals are prompted to act judiciously and effectively to address the prevailing situation. Whatever has been done so far is commendable, but since the climate issue is a very pressing issue at present, addressing it effectively requires a sustained, comprehensive, and globally coordinated response.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Raj K. Baral

Raj K. Baral is an Assistant Professor at Tribhuvan University, Nepal. His research interests include non-western rhetoric, language and literature, cultural studies, and higher education/policy. He has been published in Distance Education, Cogent Arts and Humanities, Journal of Academic Ethics among others. Currently, he is pursuing PhD in Rhetoric and Writing Studies from the University of Texas at El Paso, USA.

Purna Chandra Bhusal

Purna Chandra Bhusal is pursuing his PhD in Rhetoric and Writing Studies and working as an Assistant Instructor at the Department of English, University of Texas at El Paso. He holds two master’s degrees: Master of Arts (Nepal) and Master of Social Science (Norway).

Shankar Paudel

Shankar Paudel is a doctoral student in Rhetoric and Writing at the University of Texas at El Paso. As a graduate assistant, he has been teaching first-year composition and technical writing courses. His research interests include environmental rhetoric, environmental justice, technical communication, and sonic rhetoric.