Exploring the impact of social media humor related to the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic literature review on themes, coping mechanisms, critiques and linguistic devices

Abstract

Amid the global COVID-19 pandemic, the use of humor on social media has emerged as a significant area of study. Nevertheless, a thorough analysis that brings together the most recent research on humor related to the pandemic is required. This systematic literature review is designed to conduct a thorough analysis of existing research on COVID-19 humor on social media, specifically its themes and categories, coping mechanisms, effects on confidence in government institutions, and the use of specific linguistic devices. It examines the role of humor in the COVID-19 pandemic, providing a detailed descriptive qualitative analysis of 49 worldwide studies between 2019 and 2022. The findings reveal that humor serves as a coping mechanism, assisting individuals in navigating the challenges and uncertainties of the pandemic, thereby promoting mental well-being. Humor emerged as a powerful tool to critique government actions, uncover inefficiencies, and shape public discourse. Linguistic devices, including wordplay, irony, satire, and parody, play a crucial role in conveying messages and emotions related to the pandemic. However, the review highlights the potential for humor to propagate harmful stereotypes and contribute to discrimination. Future research should explore the cultural and social variations in humor styles, coping mechanisms, and the effectiveness of humor globally.

Keywords:

• Coping mechanism
• COVID-19
• humor
• linguistic devices
• social media
• systematic literature review

Reviewing Editor:

• Jeroen van de Weijer
• College of International Studies, Shenzhen University
• China

Subjects:

• Mass Communication
• Philosophy
• Cultural Studies
• Language & Linguistics
• English Language

Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic has profoundly impacted individuals and societies worldwide, prompting various forms of expression and communication to navigate the challenges and uncertainties brought about by the crisis. In this regard, the landscape of communication has significantly shifted towards digital platforms, with social media emerging as a prominent medium for expression and interaction. Individuals worldwide have turned to social media to connect, share experiences, and express their perspectives on the ongoing crisis (Malecki et al., 2021). Notably, humor has become a prevalent form of expression on these platforms, serving as a coping mechanism and fostering a sense of community amidst the challenges brought about by the pandemic. Social media users have creatively employed various humorous elements, such as memes, jokes and witty commentary, to address diverse aspects of the COVID-19 situation, ranging from government actions to societal behaviors.

Despite the widely acknowledged importance of humor during crises, there exists a critical need for a comprehensive analysis that consolidates existing research on COVID-19 humor. This includes a specific exploration of its themes and categories, coping mechanisms, effects on confidence in government institutions, and the deployment of linguistic devices. This could provide valuable insights into the multifaceted and dynamic nature of COVID-19 humor, contributing to a deeper understanding of how individuals cope, communicate, and navigate extraordinary circumstances during this global health crisis.

This systematic literature review aims to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the existing research on COVID-19 humor on social media and to specifically identify and analyze the themes and categories evident in COVID-19-related humor, examine the role of humor as a coping mechanism during the COVID-19 pandemic, investigate the utilization of COVID-19 humor for critiquing government institutions, and explore the linguistic devices and techniques employed in the creation of COVID-19 humor. By synthesizing existing studies in this field, we aim to provide insights into the subtleties of humor during the pandemic.

The first sub-section of the literature review explores the themes and categories observed in COVID-19 humor. It investigates the various manifestations of humor, ranging from jokes related to government actions to gender-based commentary, conspiracy theories, and even the incorporation of humor to address geographic or behavioral dimensions of the pandemic. By identifying these themes and categories, we aim to understand the humorous discourse encompassing COVID-19 comprehensively.

In the second sub-section of this review, we explore the role of humor as a coping mechanism during the COVID-19 pandemic. Humor has long been recognized as a coping mechanism in times of crisis, offering individuals a means to alleviate stress, create solidarity, and navigate difficult circumstances (Kuiper, 2012; Martin et al., 1993). As individuals worldwide face uncertainties and challenges brought forth by the pandemic, humor has emerged as a valuable tool for alleviating stress, anxiety, and psychological distress. By finding fun moments and sharing humorous content, individuals can momentarily escape the overwhelming realities of the pandemic and find solace in collective laughter.

The third sub-section centers on the impacts of humor on confidence within government institutions during the COVID-19 pandemic. Specifically, we explore how humor has played a significant role in shedding light on flawed government policies, highlighting corruption, exposing misinformation, and satirizing illogical statements made by politicians. By examining the relationship between humor and confidence in government institutions, we aim to understand how humor has been utilized as a tool to critique and challenge questionable actions and policies. Through its satirical and critical nature, humor has provided a platform for individuals to express their dissatisfaction, skepticism, and mistrust towards government responses to the pandemic. By investigating the impacts of humor on confidence within this context, we gain valuable insights into how humor serves as a vehicle for political commentary, accountability, and the shaping of public opinion.

Finally, the sub-fourth section focuses on the specific linguistic devices and techniques employed in COVID-19 humor. The fourth section explores irony, sarcasm, puns, satire, and exaggeration as prominent linguistic devices in conveying humorous messages and social commentary during the pandemic. By examining the functions and effects of these devices, we gain a deeper understanding of the intricate ways in which humor is constructed and the implications it holds within the context of COVID-19.

Through this systematic literature review, we consolidate and synthesize the existing knowledge on COVID-19 humor, highlighting the key findings, variations, and gaps in the current body of research. By comprehensively examining themes, coping mechanisms, impacts on confidence in government institutions, and linguistic devices, we seek to contribute to understanding humor as a multifaceted and dynamic phenomenon in the context of a global health crisis. Overall, this review seeks to provide valuable insights into the nature and significance of COVID-19 humor on social media, paving the way for further research and practical applications of humor as a social, psychological, and communicative tool during times of crisis. The significance of this review lies in its potential to illuminate the role of humor on social media as a social, psychological, and communicative tool, offering insights that can inform further research and practical applications in times of crisis.

Through this systematic literature review, we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of COVID-19 humor on social media by addressing four primary research questions:

• R1: What themes and categories emerge from the analysis of humor related to COVID-19?

• R2: How does humor function as a coping mechanism during the COVID-19 pandemic?

• R3: In what ways is COVID-19 humor employed to critique government institutions?

• R4: What linguistic devices and techniques are utilized to create COVID-19 humor?

Methodology

In this research, we undertake a descriptive qualitative systematic literature review (SLR) to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the existing research on COVID-19 humor on social media and to specifically explore its themes and categories, coping mechanisms, effects on confidence in government institutions, and the utilization of specific linguistic devices. As outlined by Fink (2019), an SLR constitutes a methodical examination of existing literature with the objective of identifying, evaluating, synthesizing, and combining the results of previous studies centered around a particular subject of inquiry.

The researchers assessed articles across diverse electronic databases up until 2022. The process of selection involved utilizing specific keywords such as ‘humor’, ‘COVID-19’, ‘pandemic’, ‘coping mechanism’, ‘criticism’, ‘political’, ‘government’,’social media’, and ‘linguistic devices’. Additionally, Boolean logic (using ‘or’ and ‘and’) was employed to establish connections between search terms and identify pertinent articles. The review methodologies advocated by Petticrew and Roberts (2008) offer valuable guidance for conducting a more thorough and critical analysis of the existing literature. Table 1 shows the data sources for the studies.

Table 1. Data source.

	URL	Database
1.	www.scholar.google.com	(Google Scholar)
2.	www.elsevier.com	(Elsevier)
3.	www.sciencedirect.com	(Science Direct)
4.	www.tandfonline.com	(Taylor & Francis online)
5.	www.journals.sagepub.com	(SAGE)
6.	https://journals.plos.org/plosone	(PLOS ONE)
7.	www.wiley.com/en-gb	(Willey)
8.	www.emerald.com/insight	(Emerald Insight)
9.	www.link.springer.com	(Springer Link)
10.	www.mdpi.com	(MDPI)
11.	www.frontiersin.org	(Frontiers)
12.	https://global.oup.com/academic/?cc=sa&lang=en&	(Oxford OUP)
13.	https://www.cambridge.org	(Cambridge UP)
14.	https://www.degruyter.com/?lang=en	(De Gruyter)

In our systematic literature review (SLR) on COVID-19 humor, the establishment of clear inclusion and exclusion criteria is crucial for ensuring transparency and enhancing the understanding of the study’s methodology. This rigorous approach aims to define the parameters for selecting studies that contribute meaningfully to the exploration of COVID-19 humor. In terms of inclusion criteria, studies were included if they directly addressed or provided insights into various aspects of COVID-19 humor on social media platforms. This included themes, categories, coping mechanisms, effects on confidence in government institutions, and the use of linguistic devices. Additionally, inclusion was restricted to studies written in English to maintain consistency in language understanding and accessibility. The availability of full text was another key criterion for inclusion, prioritizing studies with entire text availability to facilitate an in-depth analysis. Furthermore, studies eligible for inclusion had to be published as research papers in academic journals, ensuring a rigorous selection of scholarly contributions.

Contrariwise, language barriers led to the exclusion of studies not written in English, maintaining a consistent linguistic approach. Studies with limited access were also excluded to ensure a comprehensive examination of the research. The exclusion of studies based on limited access does not mean that only open-access articles were considered; rather, it ensured that all relevant research with adequate accessibility was included in the review. Certain publication types, such as textbooks, conference abstracts, reviews, editorials, and opinion papers, were excluded to maintain a focus on primary research contributions and uphold the scholarly rigor of the SLR. This systematic approach to inclusion and exclusion criteria serves as a foundation for assessing the existing literature on COVID-19 humor. These criteria were applied during the initial screening process, where a total of 49 underwent a comprehensive assessment and analysis, forming the basis for our systematic literature review.

The initial exploration of scholarly databases resulted in 205 findings, with 98 exclusions based on title review, which encompassed duplicate articles and those considered irrelevant. Subsequently, the remaining 107 articles underwent abstract evaluation, leading to the exclusion of 40 articles that did not meet the inclusion criteria. A total of 67 articles, along with 17 articles manually identified through online random searching and backward reference searching, were subjected to a comprehensive full-text review. Following a thorough examination of the full texts based on eligibility criteria, 49 studies were ultimately chosen for the final assessment. These articles were categorized as follows: 17 articles centered on exploring themes and categories related to COVID-19 humor, 15 articles delved into humor as a coping mechanism amid the COVID-19 pandemic, 11 articles focused on political criticism within the context of COVID-19 pandemic humor; and 6 articles were dedicated to examining linguistic devices used in humor related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Each of these distinct topics will be independently explored and expounded upon in the subsequent sections. The selection process is visually represented in Figure 1, following the PRISMA flow diagram. PRISMA, which stands for Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses, is a comprehensive set of evidence-based items designed to guide scientific authors in reporting various systematic reviews and meta-analyses (Moher et al., 2010).

Figure 1. Flow diagram representing the process of identifying and selecting studies.

Literature review

Themes and categories identified in COVID-19 humor

Humor has played a significant role in navigating the challenges and complexities of the COVID-19 pandemic. Researchers have conducted studies to explore the various facets of COVID-19 humor, examining its intersection with gender, racism, and its manifestation across different cultural contexts. Studies under this sub-section include three groups. The first group focuses on gender and COVID-19 humor, revealing how humor may reinforce traditional gender roles and perpetuate harmful stereotypes, like studies by Lomotey and Chachu (2020), Vurayai (2020), Al-Rawi et al. (2021) and Haider and Al-Abbas (2022). The second group includes studies of racist memes during the pandemic, shedding light on the perpetuation of discriminatory attitudes and behaviors, such as Wu and Wall (2021) and Matamoros-Fernández et al. (2022). Finally, the third group explores COVID-19 humor in various countries, uncovering themes, messages, and cultural nuances of humorous content that reflect societal concerns, public reactions, and coping mechanisms across different cultural contexts, such as Khan et al. (2020), Thelwall and Thelwall (2020), Cancelas-Ouviña (2021), Han and Kuipers (2021), Meder (2021), Norstrom and Sarna (2021), Lotfy and Soliman (2021), Al-Daher et al. (2022), Al Zidjaly (2022), De Saint Laurent et al. (2022) and Phillips-Kumaga et al. (2022).

Lomotey and Chachu (2020) explored contemporary gender ideologies manifested in 12 Ghanian jokes shared on WhatsApp, Facebook, and Twitter using Feminist Critical Discourse Analysis approach. The research highlighted themes such as the objectification of women, the portrayal of men as inherently polygamous, the representation of women as manipulative, the astonishment at men displaying nurturing qualities, and the assumption of skepticism towards female intelligence and authority. Humor in gender-related memes often perpetuates negative stereotypes and ideologies.

Vurayai (2020) followed the functionalist and feminist theories of mass media and the justification suppression model and extended this exploration by analyzing the content of 10 WhatsApp jokes targeting women. The results of the study showed that COVID-19 jokes depart from being a coping mechanism to promoting dysfunctions such as humiliation and social exclusion of women. Jokes about women were victimizing, derogatory, and denigrating. They can elicit self-doubt and reduce women’s intellectual and physical performance. Women were portrayed as weak, dependent, decorative sex objects, victims, and irresponsible caregivers.

One focused study by Al-Rawi et al. (2021) with a thematic analysis approach identified and analyzed recurring gendered themes in 1236 COVID-19 memes on Instagram. Results revealed a consistent reinforcement of traditional gender roles and stereotypes. Women were often depicted as more vulnerable to the virus and responsible for caregiving, while men were portrayed as less affected and more concerned with economic and political issues. This gendered representation in memes reflects and perpetuates societal expectations and inequalities.

In Arab countries, Haider and Al-Abbas (2022) analyzed 508 gender-related jokes of Arab women on WhatsApp and Facebook, adopting the GTVH and Critical Discourse Analysis. Women were portrayed as ugly, less feminine without makeup, talkative, shopaholics, despising, and annoying wives. Arab women were the butt of the jokes, which supported patriarchal ideology and created a poor social environment for women.

The investigation of racist memes and their impact is another critical area of study. For instance, Matamoros-Fernández et al. (2022) drawing upon Stoever’s work on the’sonic color line’, analyzed 639 racist videos on TikTok during the pandemic, particularly those with racist content targeting Asians. The study revealed a reinforcement of discriminatory attitudes and behaviors towards racial groups, with Asians being the most targeted.

Wu and Wall (2021) conducted a multi-modal critical discourse analysis to investigate the perpetuation of anti-Asian racism through 5 memes on Instagram during the pandemic. They underscored the detrimental effects of these memes and highlighted the significance of addressing racial stereotypes to promote inclusivity within meme culture. The memes portrayed Asians as unclean or diseased, thereby reinforcing stereotypes and exacerbating the marginalization of this racial community.

The third category refers to studies that specifically analyze humor related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Each of these studies examines various aspects of COVID-19-related humor, including its themes, messages, and societal implications. They investigate how humor manifests in memes, jokes, and other forms of media during the pandemic. Khan et al. (2020), for instance, employed the Linguo-Cultural Approach by Petrova to analyze 580 jokes/memes on WhatsApp and Facebook containing Corona related humor in Pakistan. Results reveal hierarchical categories of memes ranging from reinforcing traditional gender roles to satirizing political figures, providing insights into societal concerns and attitudes during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Thelwall and Thelwall (2020) conducted a thematic analysis on 87 English-language tweets mentioning COVID-19 to get insights into public reactions to the pandemic in its early stages. The main themes identified in the tweets were lockdown life, attitude, politics, safety messages, people with COVID-19, key workers, work, and COVID-19.

In Spain, Cancelas-Ouviña (2021) investigated humor in memes disseminated via WhatsApp during COVID-19. The researcher conducted a content analysis of 644 memes, looking at their themes and the strategies used to create humor. Cancelas-Ouviña found that the most common themes were related to social distancing, hygiene, and government measures.

Han and Kuipers (2021) investigated humorous memes that surfaced on Chinese TikTok during the COVID-19 pandemic. Based on content and discourse analysis of 85 sample videos, the findings reveal three distinct genres of mothers featured in the memetic clips: (1) ‘balancing mothers,’ managing both work and childcare, (2) ‘pedagogic mothers,’ providing childcare tips and (3) ‘commercially oriented’ mothers, incorporating product placement and advertising tutorials.

To discover the most prevalent themes of COVID-19 humor in the Netherlands, Meder (2021) employed a thematic approach to examine the themes and messages conveyed by the humor and rumors of 770 stories and memes that were collected from Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube. The most prominent Corona folktales were Quarantine, Conspiracy, Keeping Distance, 5 G, Vaccine, Death, Alcohol, Hoarding, and China and Chinese.

In Poland, Norstrom and Sarna (2021) examined the use of memes during the COVID-19 lockdown. The authors collected 1763 memes from six media platforms and analyzed them using content analysis with framing elements and comparative narrative analysis. The results of the study revealed that many memes during the lockdown cantered around the theme of ‘bans and directives’, mocking the perceived lack of purpose in the restrictions. These memes humorously portrayed ordinary people as being careless about the virus and disregarding imposed rules.

Lotfy and Soliman (2021) analyzed the use of humor in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic on Egyptian Facebook pages. The researchers collected 280 humorous posts from eight Facebook pages known for sharing humorous content. The study utilized content analysis and was guided by the incongruity theory of humor and the conceptual blending theory. Lotfy and Soliman found that the most common topic of humor was the lockdown, followed by the shortage of essential supplies and the pandemic itself.

Al-Daher et al. (2022) conducted content and linguistic analysis adopting the GTVH to uncover the jokes’ thematic and structural aspects of 197 Jordanian jokes shared on Facebook. Results reveal that a wide range of themes encompass ethnic jokes, government decisions, the effects of restrictions, sexist jokes, the virus itself, miscellaneous offensive jokes, the year 2020, and remote education.

In Oman, Al Zidjaly (2022) investigated 288 WhatsApp sticker memes during the COVID-19 outbreak as a form of social lamentation, integrating perspectives from visual semiotics. The investigation revealed that COVID-19 WhatsApp stickers in Oman express political dissent and levity, promote religious agendas, index frustration, create public signs, and construct counter-discourse.

De Saint-Laurent et al. (2022) conducted a content analysis on a systematically generated sample of 1544 memes posted on Reddit around the world. Most of the memes focused on the virus’s origin, protection and transmission, testing and treatment, and the pandemic’s influence on daily life.

In Ghana, Phillips-Kumaga et al. (2022) explored the types of humor shared by media users during the initial phase of the COVID-19 pandemic. The researchers conducted a content analysis of 97 pictures, cartoons, memes, GIFs, and short videos related to COVID-19 on WhatsApp, Facebook, and Instagram. The results revealed six main recurring themes: laughing in the face of death, humor as a relief from boredom, diet humor, fashion humor, humor on naming, and humor on safety protocols.

Humor as a coping mechanism

Extraordinary circumstances like disease outbreaks and epidemics often evoke fear (Ahorsu et al., 2022). Humor serves as a powerful tool in navigating challenging times such as the global COVID-19 pandemic. Various studies have investigated the diverse functions of humor, shedding light on how it can effectively neutralize threats (Stefani, 2020), alleviate anxiety and tension (Bauer & Ngondo, 2022; Hussein & Aljamili, 2020; Marfo et al., 2022; Torres et al., 2020), promote psychological well-being (Lenggogeni et al., 2022; Outley et al., 2021; Strick, 2021; Zahoor, 2020), provide a creative outlet for expression (Sebba-Elran, 2021), cope with death anxiety and managing stress (Mahat-Shamir & Kagan, 2022; Oduor & Kodak, 2020), mitigate the negative effects of social distancing on mental health (Sumantri et al., 2021) and appreciate COVID-19 humor and its effects on emotions (Amici, 2020; Bischetti et al., 2021).

Humor has a way of neutralizing threats. One study by Stefani (2020) in Romania explored 4200 humorous messages on Facebook, focusing on content, characteristics, and dissemination methods. Based on content analysis, it was found that the humorous messages covered various topics such as the threat itself, protective measures, quarantine, the effectiveness of the health system, and lifestyle changes and their implications. The overarching aim of these messages was to neutralize the perceived threat in the collective imagination and regain symbolic control.

Another aspect of humor is its ability to alleviate anxiety and tension, as evidenced by studies conducted by Hussein and Aljamili (2020), Torres et al. (2020), Marfo et al. (2022) and Bauer and Ngondo (2022). In their investigation of humor during the COVID-19 pandemic in Jordan, Hussein and Aljamili (2020) utilized the semiotic framework proposed to demonstrate the role of Jordanian social media in alleviating pandemic-related anxiety and providing relief. They selected 20 jokes circulated on Jordanian social media platforms for analysis, revealing a growing tendency among users to employ humor as a means of mitigating anxiety and fear. Additionally, the study highlighted how social media humor fosters positive emotions and restores a sense of community, which has been diminished due to the social isolation brought about by the pandemic.

Torres et al. (2020) examined 214 humor scripts in Tagalog and English from Facebook and Twitter platforms in the Philippines, utilizing a framework developed by Torres in analyzing humor scripts. Their results indicate that humor acts as a discourse mode, serving as a coping mechanism, facilitating emotional self-regulation, and offering relief from daily challenges.

Marfo et al. (2022) also examined how Ghanaians coped during the COVID-19 pandemic, highlighting their reliance on humor as a tool to alleviate anxiety and tension. Through thematic and narrative analysis of 50 social media posts from platforms like Facebook, WhatsApp, Twitter, Instagram, and YouTube, the study reveals that Ghanaians, despite a surge in reported cases, utilize humor as a form of stress relief to mitigate the psychological and emotional effects of COVID-19, indicating that humor and laughter play a role in promoting psychological well-being by reducing stress.

Bauer and Ngondo (2022) provided valuable insights into how academic mothers utilized memes for humor, emotional expression, and collective coping during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study focused on a private Facebook group of academic mothers, examining the themes and functions of six memes posted within the group. Thematic analysis of the memes provides insights into how academic mothers utilized memes during the pandemic, highlighting the role of humor in addressing challenges specific to this demographic, such as increased stress, burnout, and gender inequality in academia, and demonstrating the diverse applications of humor across various groups.

Humor can also promote psychological well-being, as evidenced in studies by (Lenggogeni et al., 2022; Outley et al. 2021; Strick, 2021; Zahoor, 2020). In Pakistan, the study by Zahoor (2020) investigates the role of linguistic humor in mitigating the severity of the post-COVID-19 situation through memes adopting the framework of Sultanoff’s Humor Theory. Zahoor conducted a content analysis on 12 memes shared on WhatsApp. The study revealed that the prevalence of linguistic humor within memes related to the COVID-19 pandemic served as a valuable tool for fostering a sense of well-being.

Outley et al. (2021) conducted a content analysis on 7 tweets, emphasizing the unique role of humor on Twitter as a coping mechanism and a form of resistance among black individuals in the US during the pandemic. The study underscores humor as a crucial coping strategy for black individuals amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, serving to navigate stress and uncertainty while also acting as a form of resistance, allowing them to assert agency and control over their narratives.

Strick (2021) compared the impact of humorous, moving, and’moving humorous’ corona messages on well-being and examined mediators of the potential uplifting effects of humor and being moved. 48 different stimuli in the US, the Netherlands, and the UK were analyzed based on the hedonic and eudaimonic well-being framework. The results showed that non-moving humorous messages reduced negative emotions but did not increase positive ones, non-humorous moving messages had mixed effects across different countries; and messages that were both humorous and moving reduced negative emotions and increased positive emotions in all samples.

Lenggogeni et al. (2022) conducted a thematic analysis on 245 residents’ Instagram and TikTok posts in Indonesia, aiming to apply coping theory from psychology to tourism crisis and disaster management during the COVID-19 pandemic’s extended prodromal stage. The results showed changes in emotional responses among Indonesian residents from the pre-lockdown to the prodromal phases of the COVID-19 pandemic, noting a shift from stress, sadness, and fear to annoyance, anger, and boredom during lockdown, with humor emerging as a coping mechanism amid travel restrictions, marking the first instance of humor being identified as a coping strategy related to travel in the context of a crisis, highlighting its role in releasing tension and reducing personal stress.

Additionally, humor can provide a creative outlet for expression. For example, Sebba-Elran (2021) conducted an analysis of 2200 WhatsApp COVID-19 memes in Israel, examining them within the context of news announcements, restrictions, and pandemic-related rumors and comparing them to disaster jokes and folklore from previous crises. The findings indicate that while these memes reflect global themes, they predominantly address local concerns and cultural nuances, serving as immediate reactions to new regulations and challenging conventional perceptions of time and space. They evoke emotions such as uncertainty, anxiety, and frustration, while also expressing political criticism and aggression towards authorities. Ultimately, humorous memes play a central role in shaping public responses to the pandemic, providing a creative outlet for its challenges and are metaphorically likened to a viral plague.

Humor has been used to cope with death anxiety and manage stress. Oduor and Kodak (2020), for instance, explored how people used humor in conversations about the coronavirus (COVID-19) to deal with the threats and dangers about to happen after COVID-19 was confirmed in Kenya. 25 memes from five WhatsApp groups were subjected to computer-mediated discourse analysis. The study revealed that humor during the COVID-19 pandemic targeted the domestic, sexual, educational, religious, professional, political, and social domains of human existence. It has psychological implications as it causes people to laugh, producing the desired mental state for dealing with the risks of the virus disease. Furthermore, it evolves in the face of a life-threatening situation and a sense of helplessness, creating a sense of connection among group members.

Mahat-Shamir and Kagan (2022) also examined the contents of 237 Israeli memes on WhatsApp and Facebook during COVID-19. Terror management theory was applied to explore how humor buffers against death anxiety. A thematic analysis incorporating deductive and inductive approaches to the data demonstrates that humor serves to connect individuals to their cultural beliefs, foster group inclusion, and provide a coping mechanism for managing stress and anxiety, highlighting its role in addressing death anxiety and imparting a sense of control amidst the ongoing pandemic.

The use of humor to mitigate the negative effects of social distancing on mental health is vital. This is evident in a study conducted by Sumantri et al. (2021) who probed into the impact of coping humor and Internal Health Locus of Control on mental health during social distancing. The data consists of 243 Indonesian social media users on sites like Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, TikTok, WhatsApp, and YouTube. The results indicate that coping humor has a direct impact on Internal Locus of Control (HLoC) and indirectly contributes to lower levels of social dysfunction, anxiety, and depression. Additionally, humor unrelated to COVID-19 influences coping humor, HLoC and mental health outcomes, underscoring the importance of fostering coping humor and HLoC to alleviate the negative effects of social distancing on mental health during the pandemic.

COVID-19 humor has been a notable phenomenon during the pandemic, appreciated for its ability to lighten moods and alleviate stress. Studies by Amici (2020) and Bischetti et al. (2021) proved the effects of COVID-19 humor on emotions in greater detail. Amici (2020) explored the Italian use of humor on social media during lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The researcher used an ad hoc questionnaire with multiple responses to measure 106 respondents’ readiness to search for, publish, and distribute humorous materials during the lockdown. The responses have been analyzed quantitatively using Excel’s IF function. Italian respondents prioritized sharing content rather than seeking it, with positive emotions prevailing over motivation. Many utilized social media to distribute entertaining material, aiming to mitigate the pandemic’s negativity and enhance social cohesion. Humor played a vital role in managing the psychological distress brought about by the pandemic, facilitating anxiety reduction, social connection maintenance, and the promotion of positive emotions.

In the early days of the pandemic in Italy, Bischetti et al. (2021) explored the appreciation of COVID-19 humor shared on Italian social media. The study investigated the thematic content of Facebook and Instagram verbal humor. 1903 participants completed a survey. Results revealed that COVID-19 humor displays a mark of aversiveness and lacks a’signature’ of funniness. It evokes aversion in people proportionate to their demographic background, particularly age and gender, as well as personality and psychological distance. The psychological distance between recipients, the looming threat of the disease, and their physical distance from the hotspots are significant determinants of whether participants rated humor as funny or aversive. COVID-19 humor was perceived as funny and aversive, leading to negative emotions such as anxiety, frustration, and anger in Italy.

Humor as a tool for unmasking government inefficiencies

This sub-section explores the role of humor as a means of critiquing government actions during the COVID-19 pandemic. By analyzing various scholarly works, this review investigates how humor was employed to express criticism, frustration, and dissatisfaction with government institutions and policies. Moreover, the review underscores the potential influence of humor on public perceptions of government institutions and provides valuable insights into the broader implications for social and political discourse.

The use of humor as a means of critiquing government responses has been a subject of interest in recent studies. Researchers like Odunlami et al. (2020), Murru and Vicari (2021), Chibuwe and Munoriyarwa (2022), Nabea (2021), Kadri and Jumrah (2022), Ndlovu and Sibanda (2022), Risi et al. (2022) and Salman et al. (2022) have explored the ways in which humor is employed to criticize the actions and policies of governments in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. On the other hand, there are also studies that focus on the role of humor in critiquing societal issues. Noteworthy among them are the works of Măda and Gomoescu (2020), Aronson and Jaffal (2022) and Nepul Raj (2021).

In Nigeria, Odunlami et al. (2020) analyzed the use of humor as a crisis communication strategy during the COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria. The researchers used a content analysis approach to examine 105 cartoons, images, and skits shared on Facebook. The results highlighted several issues, including the public’s ignorance and lack of awareness of the fundamental issues of the pandemic, the economic difficulties imposed by the lockdown measures in response to the pandemic, the inconsistencies within government policies and actions regarding the pandemic, the public’s skepticism and lack of belief in the government’s sincerity in handling the pandemic, family conflicts and domestic challenges arising from the lockdown educating and enlightening the public about the coronavirus, broader societal issues resulting from the pandemic, such as restrictions on worship and social gatherings, and matters concerning gender relations.

Murru and Vicari (2021) examined 9000 Italian pandemic memes on Twitter during the first lockdown. The method of analysis involved coding and analyzing the dataset using a grounded theory approach. The analysis revealed that memes ridiculed political leaders, experts, and institutions, employing delegitimizing techniques typical of political memetics, with a primary focus on anti-elitist narratives. Memes tended to rely on pre-existing schemata to criticize political leaders and experts without proposing clear alternatives or explicit references to political projects.

Chibuwe and Munoriyarwa (2022) explored how Zimbabweans utilized WhatsApp jokes to cope with the pandemic during the 21-day COVID-19 lockdown. 25 jokes were analyzed in light of Iddo Tavory’s theory of humor. WhatsApp jokes in Zimbabwe were found to target the government’s heavy-handedness in an informalized economy, corruption, bankruptcy, inconsistencies, COVID-19 as entertainment and political critique, and sex, sexual organs, and sexual immorality. Zimbabweans used humor to challenge elite corruption and economic mismanagement.

In the context of Kenya, Nabea (2021) investigated the creation of internet memes during the COVID-19 pandemic, focusing on their discursive counter-power regarding Kenyan COVID-19 protocols. Employing semiotics theory to analyze 12 memes sourced from Twitter, YouTube, and Facebook, the study revealed that Kenyans responded by generating memes that satirically depicted and ridiculed the government’s preventive measures, providing amusement for many. Additionally, these memes related to coronavirus infections in Kenya adopted a satirical approach, challenging the government’s management of the pandemic. They often highlighted individuals subjected to governmental sanctions and police brutality through dark humor.

In Indonesia, Kadri and Jumrah (2022) analyzed 9 WhatsApp memes adopting Roland Barthes’ semiotic approach.to show the evolution of memes related to COVID-19 across different pandemic stages. Initially, memes promote good hygiene practices and social distancing. The memes shifted their tone towards critique and satire of the government’s response, limited access to testing and medical supplies, and the economic impact as the pandemic progressed.

Ndlovu and Sibanda (2022) examined the use of humor in 21 WhatsApp memes during the COVID-19 outbreak in Zimbabwe. Pragmatic and discoursal analysis of the data showed that satire was employed as a subversive strategy to comment on and criticize the government’s handling of the crisis. The memes conveyed subversive meanings related to the government’s response, the impact on daily life, and the role of misinformation.

In Italy, Risi et al. (2022) explored the narratives spread through memes related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Drawing on a content analysis of 1882 memes on social media, memes contributed to constructing a domestic narrative in the first period (March–May 2020), while a political narrative was identified in the second period (September–November 2020) and a bureaucratic and health narrative in the third period (December–February 2021). The study showed that broadcast media, and especially Italian politics, were vital actors in providing sources for meme repertoires.

Finally, Salman et al. (2022) examined 10 COVID-19 jokes on Facebook and WhatsApp in the light of a neo-Gricean approach. The analysis revealed that the primary intention behind COVID-19 jokes is to criticize through humor, highlighting a satirical and critical tone in the jokes examined.

Other studies focus on the role of humor in critiquing societal issues, such as Măda and Gomoescu (2020), Aronson and Jaffal (2022) and Nepul Raj (2021). In an attempt to compare humor during the Spanish Flu and the COVID-19 crises, Măda and Gomoescu (2020) analyzed 15 cartoons, 6 of them published in a newspaper in 1918–1919 and the rest in 2020 on online media and social networks. The study’s results support the idea that pandemic humor is used as a coping mechanism for more mundane issues such as lack of commodities, loss of jobs, beauty concerns, online schooling, or the lack of implication in solving the crisis on behalf of the authorities. Moreover, cartoonists criticized politicians’ lack of reaction to the pandemic’s economic, political, and social crises.

Aronson and Jaffal (2022) investigated 331 videos of young adults’ perceptions on the pandemic by analyzing content from the Facebook group ‘Zoom Memes for Self-Quaranteens’. American adults utilized generation-specific humor to express grievances with older individuals in authority roles such as professors, political leaders, and university officials. The posts reflected a sense of mistrust and discord with institutional authorities that hold influence over their lives.

In India, Nepul Raj (2021) analyzed how people use memes through the Chennai Meme Facebook page as their stress buster elements on various sociopolitical and economic issues of COVID-19. They employed Stephenson’s Play Theory of Mass Communication to analyze 842 memes. Memes emerged as a powerful weapon, urging people to stay safe and creating awareness, like staying indoors, social distancing, avoiding gathering in public places, being more hygienic, and criticizing the political actions of central and state governments.

Linguistics devices and techniques used in COVID 19 humor

Various studies underscore the crucial role of linguistic devices and techniques in crafting and disseminating humor related to COVID-19, including those by Ajayi and Akinrinlola (2021), Tavoli et al. (2022), Al-Qudah and Hait (2022), Valenzuela et al. (2021), Ogungbe and Omolabi (2020) and Ali and Faraj (2022).

Ajayi and Akinrinlola (2021) undertook a pragmatic and multimodal analysis of 10 memes circulated on Facebook, WhatsApp, and Twitter in Nigeria, revealing that the texts and images in the memes incorporate the socio-political and religious contexts of Nigeria to convey various messages, including warnings, admonitions, information, mockery, criticism, condemnation, rebuke, labeling, accusations, and sermonization.

In Iran, Tavoli et al. (2021) conducted a linguistic and discoursal analysis on 100 COVID-19 jokes on Telegram and WhatsApp. The study revealed that humor mechanisms such as wordplay, irony, exaggeration, and incongruity generated humorous content, easing tension and distress during the pandemic.

During the outbreak of COVID-19 in Jordan, Al-Qudah and Hait (2022) investigated the rhetorical strategies employed in 25 jokes from various social media platforms, including Facebook and WhatsApp. Using Berger’s rhetorical techniques, the findings revealed that many rhetorical strategies were used to convey humor. Jordanian social media includes satire, pun, irony, exaggeration, definition, ignorance, rigidity, disappointment, allusion, and absurdity to induce amusement.

Valenzuela et al. (2021) employed a content analysis approach to examine 10 memes related to the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines. Drawing on semiology concepts, the study explored the usage of sarcasm and irony as prominent humorous devices in the memes. These humorous elements were found to reflect concerns about the impact of the pandemic while bringing entertainment and amusement to the audience.

Ogungbe and Omolabi (2020) analyzed 7 Nigerian coronavirus-related jokes on Facebook and WhatsApp based on Mey’s Pragmatic Acts Theory, revealing that humor played a role in reducing anxiety, promoting mental health, fostering solidarity, and managing social dynamics through strategies like implicature, irony, and hyperbole.

Ali and Faraj (2022) conducted a linguistic analysis of humor related to COVID-19 in 30 Jordanian hashtags on Instagram, Twitter, and Facebook. The study’s findings revealed that puns, irony, sarcasm, and metaphors are the verbal devices that create laughs. Wordplays and puns were the most popular humorous features in Jordanian hashtags. Jordanians used alliteration, rhyming, hyperbole, homophones, conditional sentences, metaphor, parallelism, paronyms, and irony to create linguistic humor at the syntactic, phonological, and semantic levels.

Results

The results section shows key findings from an extensive review of COVID-19 humor studies on social media, systematically exploring humor themes, coping mechanisms, government critiques, and linguistic devices. Key findings include gendered portrayals in humor, with women often depicted as vulnerable caregivers and men as less affected by the virus, perpetuating traditional gender roles. Additionally, racist memes targeting specific racial groups, particularly Asians, reinforce harmful stereotypes and biases, underscoring the need for interventions to promote inclusivity in meme culture. Globally, COVID-19 humor themes cover various aspects of the pandemic, including its origin, protection, transmission, testing, and daily life impact, offering commentary and reflection on shared experiences. Humor emerges as a coping mechanism across diverse cultural contexts, fostering community-building and mental well-being. Critically, humor serves as a tool for critiquing government actions and policies, highlighting inefficiencies and prompting the need for more inclusive examination and longitudinal studies. Linguistic devices and visual elements in COVID-19 humor play multifaceted roles, from alleviating stress to conveying cultural values and political critique.

In addition, the results reveal several aspects of the reviewed studies, including, sample size, the chosen social media platform for data collection, the geographical focus, the temporal distribution of the study, and the research methods employed. Detailed results are presented for each category, shedding light on the specific characteristics and patterns observed within each group. Firstly, the reviewed studies exhibit a considerable variation in sample sizes, ranging from very small to large-scale data collections. For instance, studies by Wu and Wall (2021), Bauer and Ngondo (2022) and Outley et al. (2021) had relatively smaller samples, with 5, 6 and 7 participants, respectively. Following closely, Lotfy and Soliman (2021), Ajayi and Akinrinlola (2021) and Kadri and Jumrah (2022) each incorporated 9, 9 and 10 participants, respectively. Vurayai (2020), Zahoor (2020) and Nabea (2021) involved samples ranging from 10 to 12 participants. Hussein and Aljamili (2020) expanded the sample to 20, while Oduor and Kodak (2020) reached 25 participants. Notably, studies by Al-Qudah and Hait (2022) and Munoriyarwa and Chibuwe (2022) reported a sample size of 25 participants each. It is important to recognize that smaller sample sizes, as observed in studies with only a few participants, may limit the generalizability of findings to a broader population. While these studies can offer valuable insights into specific cases or contexts, they may not fully represent the larger population.

On the other hand, studies with larger scales, such as those by Aronson and Jaffal (331), Khan et al. (2020) (580), Matamoros-Fernández et al. (2022) (639), and Cancelas-Ouviña (2021) (644), involved substantial numbers. The sample sizes further escalated with Nepul Raj (2021) (842), Al-Rawi et al. (2021) (1236), Haider and Al-Abbas (2022) (1424), De Saint Laurent et al. (2022) (1544), Norstrom and Sarna (2021) (1763), and Risi et al. (2022) (1882). Bischetti et al. (2021) reported a considerable sample size of 1903, while Sebba-Elran (2021) and Meder (2021) conducted extensive studies with 2200 and 3000. Finally, Stefani (2020) and Strick (2021) conducted large-scale research with sample sizes of 4200 and 9000. Larger sample sizes offer greater statistical power and increased generalizability. Studies with hundreds or thousands of participants are more likely to produce findings that accurately reflect the characteristics and behaviors of the target population. They provide more robust evidence and are better suited for generalizing to broader populations. Researchers must carefully consider sample size alongside other methodological factors to ensure the reliability and applicability of their results to a broader population. Increasing the sample size and diversity could provide a more comprehensive understanding of linguistic humor patterns across different social media platforms and cultural contexts.

Secondly, Different social media platforms were used to collect data for the studies. WhatsApp emerges prominently, indicating its widespread popularity and accessibility for investigating various research questions. This is evident in studies conducted by Vurayai (2020), Zahoor (2020), Munoriyarwa and Chibuwe (2022), Nabea (2021), Marfo et al. (2022) and Kadri and Jumrah (2022). Facebook is also extensively employed across studies, underscoring its diverse applications in academic inquiry. Notable examples include research by Khan et al. (2020), Al-Daher et al. (2022), Stefani (2020), Torres et al. (2020), Lotfy and Soliman (2021), Nepul Raj (2021) and Bauer and Ngondo (2022). Twitter is utilized for capturing real-time conversations and dynamic discussions in studies by Thelwall and Thelwall (2020), Sumantri et al. (2021), Outley et al. (2021), Lomotey and Chachu (2020), Strick (2021) and Ajayi and Akinrinlola (2021). YouTube serves as a focal point for multimedia content dissemination, as employed by Meder (2021) and Marfo et al. (2022). Instagram has been utilized for academic exploration in studies by Phillips-Kumaga et al. (2022), Al-Rawi et al. (2021), Sumantri et al. (2021) and Wu and Wall (2021). TikTok, known for short-form videos, has been explored in studies by Matamoros-Fernández et al. (2022), Han and Kuipers (2021) and Lenggogeni et al. (2022). Reddit was the focus of the study by De Saint Laurent et al. (2022), while Telegram was utilized in research by Tavoli et al. (2021).

Additionally, some studies employed multiple social media platforms, such as Meder (2021) utilizing Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, and Norstrom and Sarna (2021) exploring data across six different social media platforms. Sumantri et al. (2021) engaged users on Instagram, Twitter, TikTok, WhatsApp, and YouTube, highlighting the dynamic nature of their research across various platforms. Several studies fell under the category of mixed social media or social media with unspecified platforms, as seen in Hussein and Aljamili (2020), Măda and Gomoescu (2020) and Risi et al. (2022). Moreover, some studies explored multiple platforms, including WhatsApp and Facebook as represented by Mahat-Shamir and Kagan (2022), Cancelas-Ouviña (2021), Salman et al. (2022), Al-Qudah and Hait (2022), Haider and Al-Abbas (2022), Oudnlami et al. (2020), Bischetti et al. (2021), Ali and Faraj (2022), Ndlovu and Sibanda (2022), Ogungbe and Omolabi (2020), and Ajayi and Akinrinlola (2021). Finally, the study by Nabea (2021) incorporated Twitter, YouTube, and Facebook into their data collection, further exemplifying the diverse approaches in social media utilization across research studies. The inclusion of studies focusing on mixed or unspecified social media platforms demonstrates the varied and flexible approaches researchers adopt in utilizing the digital terrain for data collection and analysis. It also highlights the dynamic nature of research in the interconnected digital landscape. Despite the rich array of social media platforms investigated, it is noteworthy that no study within this synthesis specifically utilized Snapchat.

Thirdly, the reviewed studies have been classified based on their geographical focus, providing a comprehensive overview of diverse social media research. This classification encompasses a wide range of countries, each represented by studies that explore the dynamics of social media content. Particularly, the classification includes studies with a global scope (4) and those with a specific country focus, including Pakistan (2), the United Kingdom (2), Poland (1), Jordan (4), Ghana (3), Indonesia (3), Israel (2), the Philippines (2), Romania (1), China (2), Spain (1), Egypt (1), Kenya (2), India (1), the United States (5), Oman (1), the Netherlands (1), Australia (1), Italy (4), Nigeria (3), and Zimbabwe (2). Additionally, studies that explore social media trends in multiple countries in Europe and those concentrating on Arab countries (1) are part of this comprehensive categorization. This diverse geographical representation reflects the international nature of social media research, highlighting the global and regional impact of online communication and content creation (Figure 2).

Figure 2. The geographical distribution of the studies.

The geographical representation of studies in the existing literature is uneven, with certain countries receiving more attention than others. For example, the United States and Jordan are among the most investigated countries, while others, such as Australia, China, and Nigeria, are less frequently studied. This imbalance may limit the generalizability of findings and overlook the unique cultural and socio-political contexts of underrepresented regions. Moreover, certain countries may be underrepresented or entirely missed in the existing literature. For example, studies focusing on countries in Latin America and Southeast Asia could provide valuable insights into how humor is employed to critique government responses to the pandemic in diverse cultural and socio-political contexts. Additionally, comparative analyses across different regions could elucidate cross-cultural variations in the use of humor as a tool for social and political critique.

Fourthly, the temporal distribution of the studies reflects an insightful trend in the exploration of COVID-19 humor, showing a progression from immediate reactions to more sustained examinations over time. Initially, studies focused on the early stages of the pandemic, offering valuable insights into immediate reactions and emerging humor themes (Amici, 2020; Bischetti et al., 2021; Lotfy & Soliman, 2021; Munoriyarwa & Chibuwe, 2022; Murru & Vicari, 2021; Nabea, 2021; Ndlovu & Sibanda, 2022; Oduor & Kodak, 2020; Stefani, 2020; Sumantri et al., 2021; Thelwall & Thelwall, 2020; Torres et al., 2020; Valenzuela et al., 2021; Wu & Wall, 2021). These studies, characterized by brief durations ranging from a few weeks to two months, provided a snapshot of humor dynamics during the onset of the crisis. Researchers explored how humor served as a coping mechanism and responded to rapidly evolving situations, highlighting the adaptability of humor in times of uncertainty.

As the pandemic persisted, the focus shifted towards more extended investigations spanning two to six months (Al-Daher et al., 2022; Ali & Faraj, 2022; Al-Qudah & Hait, 2022; Al-Rawi et al., 2021; Aronson & Jaffal 2022; Cancelas-Ouviña, 2021; De Saint Laurent et al., 2022; Haider & Al-Abbas, 2022; Han & Kuipers, 2021; Hussein & Aljamili, 2020; Kadri & Jumrah, 2022; Khan et al., 2020; Lenggogeni et al., 2022; Lomotey & Chachu, 2020; Măda & Gomoescu, 2020; Mahat-Shamir & Kagan, 2022; Matamoros-Fernández et al., 2022; Meder, 2021; Norstrom & Sarna, 2021; Oudnlami et al. 2020; Outley et al., 2021; Phillips-Kumaga et al., 2022; Nepul Raj, 2021; Tavoli et al., 2021; Zahoor, 2020). This phase witnessed a deeper exploration of COVID-19 humor trends and coping mechanisms, capturing a broader range of topics and societal responses. Studies within this timeframe examined how humor evolved in response to changing circumstances and societal attitudes, shedding light on the dynamic nature of humor as a social phenomenon. Researchers analyzed humor’s role in critiquing government actions, navigating economic challenges, and addressing public health concerns, providing valuable insights into the multifaceted nature of pandemic humor.

The third category of studies, extending beyond six months, offered a comprehensive understanding of the evolving impacts and dynamics of the pandemic over an extended timeframe. This was clear in studies by Al Zidjaly (2022), Marfo et al. (2022), Sebba-Elran (2021) and Risi et al. (2022). These studies captured trends and shifts in humor over a longer period of time, allowing researchers to trace the evolution of COVID-19 humor and its implications over time. By analyzing humor trends across different phases of the pandemic, researchers gained deeper insights into how humor adapted to changing circumstances, societal norms, and public perceptions. These studies provided an understanding of humor’s role in shaping public discourse, influencing attitudes towards government institutions, and fostering social cohesion amidst adversity.

However, a notable gap exists in studies that did not specify the timeframe of their investigations, such as Ogungbe and Omolabi (2020), Vurayai (2020), Ajayi and Akinrinlola (2021) Strick (2021), Bauer and Ngondo (2022) and Salman et al. (2022). The lack of temporal context in these studies limits our understanding of how humor trends have evolved over time and hinders the ability to compare findings across different phases of the pandemic (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Temporal distribution of the studies.

Finally, researchers utilized diverse research methodologies, encompassing qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods, to address their respective research objectives and inquiries. The first set of studies adopted qualitative research methods, exemplified by works such as Hussein and Aljamili (2020), Khan et al. (2020), Lomotey and Chachu (2020), Măda and Gomoescu (2020), Ogungbe and Omolabi (2020), Oduor and Kodak (2020), Oudnlami et al. (2020), Thelwall and Thelwall (2020), Vurayai (2020), Zahoor (2020), Ajayi and Akinrinlola (2021), Aronson and Jaffal (2022), Cancelas-Ouviña (2021), Han and Kuipers (2021), Lotfy and Soliman (2021), Marfo et al. (2022), Meder (2021), Murru and Vicari (2021), Nabea (2021), Outley et al. (2021), Nepul Raj (2021), Sebba-Elran (2021), Tavoli et al. (2021), Valenzuela et al. (2021), Wu and Wall (2021), Ali and Faraj (2022), Al-Qudah and Hait (2022), Al Zidjaly (2022), De Saint Laurent et al. (2022), Haider and Al-Abbas (2022), Kadri and Jumrah (2022), Lenggogeni et al. (2022), Mahat-Shamir and Kagan (2022), Munoriyarwa and Chibuwe (2022), Ndlovu and Sibanda (2022), Phillips-Kumaga et al. (2022), Salman et al. (2022).

Conversely, the second cluster of studies employed a mixed methods approach, incorporating both qualitative and quantitative research methods. This includes studies by Amici (2020), Stefani (2020), Strick (2021), Torres et al. (2020), Al-Rawi et al. (2021), Norstrom and Sarna (2021), Al-Daher et al. (2022), Bauer and Ngondo (2022), Matamoros-Fernández et al. (2022) and Risi et al. (2022). Lastly, only two studies opted for a quantitative research method, namely Bischetti et al. (2021) and Sumantri et al. (2021).

The existing literature reviewed in this context demonstrates a wide range of research methodologies, including qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. While this diversity in research methods can provide valuable insights and perspectives, there are some notable gaps and areas where the existing literature could be enriched. Thirty-seven reviewed studies employ qualitative, 10 mixed methods, and only two studies employ quantitative research methods. This indicates a potential gap in the literature in terms of rigorous quantitative studies. Quantitative research methods can provide statistical analysis and numerical data that offer a different level of objectivity and generalizability to the findings.

A considerable number of studies employ content analysis as their primary method. This includes investigations such as Khan et al. (2020), Oudnlami et al. (2020), Vurayai (2020), Cancelas-Ouviña (2021), Norstrom and Sarna (2021), Ali and Faraj (2022), De Saint Laurent et al. (2022), Phillips-Kumaga et al. (2022) and Risi et al. (2022), where researchers systematically analyze the content of various sources to extract meaningful insights. Thematic analysis is another prevalent approach found in several studies. Notable examples include Thelwall and Thelwall (2020), Meder (2021), Al-Rawi et al. (2021) and Wu and Wall (2021). Some studies integrate content and linguistic analysis, as seen in Al-Daher et al. (2022).

A unique method observed is multi-modal critical discourse analysis, as applied by Wu and Wall (2021). Additionally, linguistic and discoursal analysis, as evident in the study by Tavoli et al. (2021), focuses on the examination of language use and discourse. Some studies, such as Nabea (2021), Kadri and Jumrah (2022) and Hussein and Aljamili (2020), employ semiotic analysis, which involves interpreting signs and symbols to understand underlying meanings. On the other hand, Al Zidjaly (2022) employs visual semiotics, emphasizing the study of visual signs and symbols. Other specific approaches include pragmatic act analysis in Ogungbe and Omolabi’s (2020) study, feminist critical discourse analysis in Lomotey and Chachu (2020) work, and pragmatic and multimodal analysis in Ajayi and Akinrinlola (2021) research. Each of these methodologies brings a unique perspective to the studies, allowing for a diverse and comprehensive exploration of the research questions at hand.

Diverse data collection methods were employed. For instance, Vurayai (2020) adopted snowball sampling, a non-probability technique where existing participants refer to or recruit new participants. The use of technology is apparent in Murru and Vicari (2021) study, where they used the Twitter Capture and Analysis Tool (TCAT) for data collection and analysis. Khan et al. (2020) opted for online crowdsourcing, a method of gathering input, ideas, or content from a large group of people over the internet. Thelwall and Thelwall (2020) utilized data collected from the Twitter API using the free software Mozdeh. Sumantri et al. (2021) employed a Google Form questionnaire link for data collection, gathering structured data through a questionnaire distributed via Google Forms.

Researchers adopted miscellaneous strategies to analyze and collect data, tailoring their approaches to the specific requirements of their studies. The identified methodological approaches range from content analysis and thematic analysis to unique methods like multi-modal critical discourse analysis and visual semiotics. These approaches contribute to a thorough exploration of the subject matter, considering both substance and language in the analysis. This diversity in methods reflects the researchers’ adaptability to the nature of their research questions and the available tools and platforms.

Discussion

The existing body of research has made significant paces in examining the themes and impact of COVID-19-related humor, with specific attention to gendered and racial dimensions. However, several noteworthy gaps persist, indicating avenues for further investigation. While studies such as those by Cancelas-Ouviña (2021), Thelwall and Thelwall (2020), Norstrom and Sarna (2021), Khan et al. (2020) and Meder (2021), have investigated thematic aspects of pandemic-related humor, there is a need for a more integrated examination of the intersectionality of these themes. A comprehensive analysis that considers how multiple themes interconnect and influence each other provides a deep understanding of the complexity of humor during the pandemic. Additionally, regional studies, exemplified by Lotfy and Soliman (2021) in Egypt, Phillips-Kumaga et al. (2022) among Ghanaians, and Al-Daher et al. (2022) in Jordan, offer valuable localized insights. However, a gap persists in integrating these regional studies into a cohesive global perspective to shed light on universal and culture-specific dynamics, enriching the understanding of global humor during the pandemic. Moreover, Han and Kuipers (2021) and Lomotey and Chachu (2020) studies explored cultural insights and gender stereotypes, but there remains a notable gap in combining these findings into a broader cultural and gender analysis on a global scale to offer a more holistic understanding of its societal implications. There is a need for a more integrated examination of how multiple themes interconnect and influence each other. This comprehensive analysis would provide a deeper understanding of the complexity of humor during the pandemic. Additionally, while regional studies have offered valuable localized insights, there is a gap in integrating these studies into a cohesive global perspective to uncover universal and culture-specific dynamics in global pandemic humor.

Moreover, the reviewed studies collectively demonstrate the diverse, adaptive, and community-building functions of humor as a coping mechanism during the COVID-19 pandemic, offering valuable insights for fostering psychological well-being and resilience in the face of adversity. However, the studies primarily focus on specific cultural contexts such as Romania, Ghana, Israel, Jordan, Italy, Kenya, and Pakistan. There is a notable absence of research encompassing a more extensive range of cultural backgrounds. A more inclusive examination across diverse societies could offer a clear understanding of how humor varies and functions as a coping tool in different cultural settings. The literature predominantly emphasizes the positive impacts of humor as a coping tool, ignoring the exploration of potential negative consequences, such as instances where humor might contribute to misinformation, reinforce stereotypes, or increase stress for certain individuals or groups. While individual studies focus on humor within specific cultural contexts, there is a lack of cross-cultural comparative analyses. Comparative studies could reveal cultural variations in humor styles, coping mechanisms, and the effectiveness of humor in mitigating anxiety and stress. Additionally, there is a relative scarcity in exploring humor’s role in coping within other demographic groups. Comparative studies that reveal cultural variations in humor styles and coping mechanisms are essential to understanding the effectiveness of humor in mitigating anxiety and stress on a global scale. Researchers should address the relative dearth in exploring humor’s role in coping within other demographic groups beyond specific regions.

The reviewed studies provide valuable insights into the utilization of humor as a critical tool against government actions during the COVID-19 pandemic across various global contexts. However, there are gaps in the existing literature. For instance, the majority of the studies are concentrated in specific regions such as Africa (Zimbabwe, Nigeria, and Kenya), Europe (Italy), India, and the United States. There is a noticeable absence of studies from other regions, limiting the representation of diverse cultural, political, and social perspectives on humor as a critique of government responses during the pandemic. A comprehensive understanding of variations in using humor as a tool for critiquing government actions would benefit from cross-cultural comparative analyses, examining how different cultures and societies employ humor in distinct ways during a global crisis. Longitudinal studies tracking the evolution of COVID-19 humor over time would also provide a more comprehensive view of how humor responses change in relation to the progression of the pandemic, governmental actions, and public sentiments.

Furthermore, the reviewed studies highlight the widespread use of linguistic devices and techniques such as implicatures, wordplay, irony, sarcasm, puns, hyperbole, exaggeration, satire, parody, and metaphors in COVID-19 humor. Such devices serve multiple purposes, including alleviating stress, conveying cultural and social values, fostering solidarity, criticizing political decisions, and promoting mental well-being during times of crisis. However, these studies predominantly focus on specific cultural contexts such as Jordan, the Philippines, and Nigeria, without offering a comprehensive cross-cultural analysis (Ajayi & Akinrinlola, 2021; Ali & Faraj, 2022; Al-Qudah & Hait, 2022; Ogungbe & Omolabi, 2020; Tavoli et al. 2022; Valenzuela et al., 2021). A significant gap lies in understanding how linguistic humor operates and is perceived in diverse societies globally, encompassing a broader range of cultural, socio-economic, and political contexts. Exploring cross-cultural variations would contribute to a deep understanding of the cultural influences on COVID-19 humor. The studies also predominantly focus on linguistic aspects, neglecting the exploration of the interplay between linguistic devices and visual elements in COVID-19 humor. Given the prevalence of memes and visual content on social media platforms, a comprehensive examination of how linguistic and visual elements create humor would offer a more holistic perspective on the communicative power of COVID-19-related content.

The substantial variation in sample sizes across the reviewed studies underscores the methodological diversity employed by researchers. Studies with smaller sample sizes, often below 50 participants, contribute valuable insights into specific contexts of social media use. On the other hand, those with larger sample sizes, exceeding hundreds or even thousands, offer a broader understanding of social media patterns and behaviors. The selection of sample size appears to be strategic, aligning with research objectives, available resources, and the platforms under investigation. The implications of sample size on the generalizability of findings emphasize the need for a concise interpretation, recognizing the trade-off between depth and breadth in social media research. Future research should focus on the implications of sample size variations on the generalizability of findings in social media research. Researchers should explore methodologies to balance depth and extensiveness in sampling strategies, considering research objectives, available resources, and the platforms under investigation.

The prominence of WhatsApp, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Instagram, and TikTok as primary data sources in various studies reflects the dynamic nature of social media research. WhatsApp’s widespread popularity is evident, emphasizing its accessibility for exploring diverse research questions (Kenchakkanavar & Hadagali, 2015). Facebook’s excessive use underscores its versatility in academic inquiry (Alkaraki et al., 2023). The utilization of Twitter captures real-time conversations and dynamic discussions, while YouTube serves as a focal point for multimedia content dissemination. The exploration of Instagram, TikTok, Reddit, and Telegram shows the evolving roles of different platforms in academic exploration. The absence of Snapchat in the studies might be due to its availability and privacy, as posts disappear within 24 h after posting (Piwek & Joinson, 2016; Vaterlaus et al., 2016). The inclusion of studies focusing on multiple or unspecified platforms reflects researchers’ flexible approaches in navigating the digital terrain for data collection and analysis. There is a need to explore emerging social media platforms and their roles in academic inquiry. While WhatsApp, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Instagram, and TikTok have been extensively utilized, platforms like Snapchat deserve attention despite their temporary nature. Researchers should investigate the potential of these platforms for data collection and analysis, considering their unique features and privacy concerns.

As for the geographical representation in the reviewed studies, it highlights the international scope of social media research. Studies range from global perspectives to specific country focuses, encompassing diverse regions such as Pakistan, the United Kingdom, Ghana, Indonesia, the United States, Jordan, Italy, and more. The United States is among the most investigated countries in the reviewed studies due to its diverse population and complex socio-political landscape (Gray, 2004), making it an attractive subject for studying various aspects of social media behavior, including humor, coping mechanisms, and government critiques during the COVID-19 pandemic. Similarly, Jordan stands out as a focal point for social media research due to its unique response to the COVID-19 pandemic (Alshoubaki & Harris, 2021), along with its government’s communication strategies and public reactions, which may have garnered interest from researchers studying social media dynamics during crises. Research endeavors should expand beyond specific countries or regions to encompass a wider range of global perspectives. Understanding how social media discourse varies across different cultural and geographical contexts would enrich our understanding of online communication and content creation.

The diverse temporal distribution of studies, categorized into groups based on the duration of investigation, provides insights into the evolving discourse on the COVID-19 pandemic. The three-month, medium-term, short- to medium-term, and extended and varied duration groups allow for extensive examinations. Studies conducted over shorter durations offer targeted insights, while longer-term investigations enable in-depth explorations and capture specific events during the pandemic. Researchers should continue to explore the evolving discourse on the COVID-19 pandemic over time. Longitudinal studies, categorized into different durations, offer valuable insights into how social media narratives shift and adapt in response to changing circumstances and public sentiments.

While the body of research on humor during the COVID-19 pandemic has been extensive, there is a notable gap in the consistency and depth of research methodology. The majority of studies have leaned towards qualitative research methods. However, this emphasis on qualitative approaches may limit the generalizability of findings and hinder comparisons across studies. Conversely, the number of studies employing a mixed methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative techniques, remains relatively limited. This gap highlights the need for more comprehensive and integrated research methodologies that can capture both the depth and breadth of the phenomenon. Future directions in research could involve the development and validation of standardized measurement tools to assess humor-related constructs.

The multitude of methodological approaches employed in the reviewed studies underscores the richness and complexity of social media research during the pandemic. content analysis, thematic analysis, content and linguistic analysis, multi-modal critical discourse analysis, and various linguistic and discoursal analyses contribute distinct perspectives to the exploration of the research questions. The integration of semiotic analysis, visual semiotics, pragmatic act analysis, feminist critical discourse analysis, and pragmatic and multimodal analysis shows the innovative and diverse ways researchers engage with social media data. The methodological flexibility observed reflects researchers’ adaptability to the unique characteristics of their research questions and the evolving landscape of social media platforms. Researchers should continue to integrate diverse analytical frameworks and tools, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and multi-modal critical discourse analysis, to provide multifaceted insights into social media phenomena.

Researchers employed diverse strategies for data collection, tailoring their approaches to the specific requirements of their studies. Snowball sampling, online crowdsourcing, Twitter API utilization, Google Form questionnaires, and the use of specialized tools like the Twitter Capture and Analysis Tool (TCAT) demonstrate the versatility in data collection methods. The integration of technology, such as online crowdsourcing and API utilization, reflects the contemporary nature of social media research. The varied approaches to data collection align with the methodological diversity observed across the studies, contributing to a comprehensive exploration of the subject matter. Researchers should tailor data collection approaches to suit the specific requirements of their studies while embracing technological advancements in social media research methodologies.

Limitations

Although this systematic literature review provides a comprehensive overview of social media research during the COVID-19 pandemic, it is not without limitations. The scope of the review may not cover every relevant study, and the inclusion criteria might introduce inherent biases. The inclusion criteria for this study aimed to encompass a broad range of research addressing various facets of COVID-19 humor on social media platforms. Studies were considered if they directly examined or provided insights into themes, categories, coping mechanisms, effects on confidence in government institutions, and the use of linguistic devices related to COVID-19 humor. The evolving nature of social media platforms and the rapidly changing dynamics of the pandemic could render some findings outdated, emphasizing the need for ongoing research updates. Additionally, the diversity in methodologies, sample sizes, and temporal scopes across studies may hinder direct comparisons and the generalizability of findings. The reliance on published literature may also introduce publication bias, as studies with positive or significant results are more likely to be published. The potential language bias, where studies in languages other than English may be underrepresented, is also a consideration. Studies with limited access were excluded to ensure a comprehensive examination of the research. It is important to note that the exclusion of studies based on limited access does not imply that only open-access articles were considered; rather, it ensured that all relevant papers with adequate accessibility to full text were included in the review. By acknowledging these limitations, future research can further explore COVID-19 humor on social media platforms and address the gaps identified in this review.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Sulaiman Mohammad Shlash Alkaraki

Sulaiman Mohammad Shlash Alkaraki is currently a PhD candidate at the National University of Malaysia (UKM). His academic pursuits encompass linguistics, pragmatics and sociolinguistics. This research aligns with Sulaiman’s broader research activities, contributing insights into the role of humor during crises, particularly in the context of global events like the COVID-19 pandemic. ORCID ID https://orcid.org/0009-0004-7559-0911.

Norhayati Binti Alias

Marlyna Maros is an Associate Professor at the Research Center for Language Studies and Linguistics, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. She lectures in linguistics subjects in particular Sociolinguistics and Intercultural Communication at BA and MA levels; and published extensively from her research in Sociolinguistics and Sociopragmatics. ORCID ID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9338-2850.

Marlyna Maros

Norhayati Binti Alias is a Spanish language instructor at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. She has more than 18 years of teaching experience. Her area of expertise is discourse and Spanish language. ORCID ID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5052-9584.