There is something special about a woman who dominates a man’s world: an African feminist critique of women characters in indlal’Inamanyala (obscenity) (1994)

Abstract

The (re)production of women in isiXhosa literature cannot be disjointed from the social realities that women experience. Young girls are no exception to this view. In fact, women’s issues could be regarded as pertinent to such an extent that dialogues concerning them ought to be initiated within isiXhosa scholarly discourses, among other platforms. This is against the reality that women have often been sidelined, especially in African literature as well as in the broader African social context, thus, there is an urgent demand to celebrate their voices today and tomorrow. With this in mind, this article aims to critique how women are depicted in Indlal’Inamanyala (Obscenity) (1994). By the same token, the objective is to comprehend how women’s realities are made visible and/or invisible in this isiXhosa drama. An African feminist theory is applied to uncover and discourse identified women’s issues and their (un)silenced voices. The findings and discussions indicate that women’s constructive contributions to society continue to be downplayed because of certain legacies of colonialism, apartheid, and traditional systems. The conclusion underlines the necessity to draw an interconnectedness between women and isiXhosa literature in an effort to address and mitigate the persisting injustices that adversely affect women in South Africa and elsewhere in the global village.

Keywords:

• African feminist theory
• critique
• isiXhosa literature
• male-orientated
• women

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Oliver Nyambi, University of the Free State, South Africa

SUBJECTS:

• Gender
• African Literature
• Women

1. Contextual background and introduction

IsiXhosa literature has long served as a powerful mirror that reflects societal ethos, values, and perspectives. In the arena of literary criticism, the critiquing of characters, particularly those representing various gender identities, offers an illuminating perspective through which to examine the complexities of culture, gender dynamic forces, and social constructs. In view of this reality, this article delves into the African feminist theory to critique how women characters are (re)produced in Indlal’Inamanyala (Obscenity) (1994), a significant literary drama during the period in which South Africa was transitioning from colonial and apartheid struggles towards what is now known as democracy and liberation. I must underline though that the scope of the tangible responses of democracy and liberation remains a bone of contention given that different individuals, groups, and societies have varying expositions and expectations regarding what constitutes democracy and liberation. In any case, this isiXhosa drama, as a literary narrative penned against the backdrop of an affluent cultural heritage and socio-political reforms, presents a compelling opportunity to explore how African feminist perspectives intersect with the depiction of women characters within the narrative canvas. Effectively, a literary critique of women characters in isiXhosa literature gives effect to a call by Saule (2017), wherein he proposes that modern isiXhosa literature should be used to revisit and probe women’s challenges in an attempt to contribute to the transformation and advancement of women’s rights and advocacy. In other words, isiXhosa literature and African literature, in general, should be utilized to emphasize the importance of using literary discourses as a tool for exploring societal attitudes towards women and advocating for positive change.

Published in 1994, Indlal’Inamanyala has emerged as an intrinsic isiXhosa literary drama in the African literary canon. Set against the backdrop of a postcolonial scenery marked by rapid urbanization and evolving gender roles, this literary narrative weaves together a tapestry of characters grappling with identity, tradition, and societal prescriptions. Authored during a transformative period, this literary drama not only captures the intricacies of the time but also invites critical examination from contemporary viewpoints. On the one hand, African feminism, rooted in the realities of African women, stands as a multifaceted and vigorous movement that contests both male-orientated structures and Western feminist paradigms (Imas & Garcia-Lorenzo, 2023). In particular, contesting male-orientated norms and Western feminist paradigms is essential for creating a more inclusive and variegated understanding of gender questions. Different societies, cultures, and historical contexts configure gender subtleties in unique ways. As a result of this, by interrogating established norms, one could potentially open the door to incorporating a wider range of voices and experiences into the dialogue about gender impartiality. IsiXhosa literature is no exception from such pursuits. In particular, it must be stressed that scrutinizing isiXhosa literature published in and after 1994 holds significant importance for several reasons. For instance, the period in and after 1994 marks the transition from apartheid to democracy in South Africa. Inevitably, isiXhosa literature produced during this time mirrors the changing social, political, and cultural terrain of the country. This denotes that by probing post-apartheid literature, scholars or literary critics could gain perspectives into how South African literary writers engage with issues of reconciliation, identity, memory, and nation-building in the reverberation of apartheid. By the same token, post-1994 South African literature embraces a wide range of voices, perspectives, and experiences. This means that literary writers from various racial, ethnic, linguistic, and cultural backgrounds contribute to the literary landscape, offering intricate depictions of South African society.

To the same degree, this critical perspective, that is African feminist theory, not only acknowledges the role of gender but also encompasses intersections of race, class, and culture in modeling women’s lives. As a theory, African feminism provides a platform to critique how the women characters in Indlal’Inamanyala navigate their roles, relationships, and pursuits within the confines of societal norms and traditional value systems. On account of this, by meticulously critiquing the depiction of women characters in isiXhosa literature, one gains perceptions into how the amaXhosa society perceives and constructs gender roles, relationships, and societal prescriptions. In fact, these depictions provide a window into the value systems, traditions, and historical occurrences that configure the amaXhosa community. In other words, isiXhosa literature, like any body of literary work, could propagate conventions or advance gender illiberalities. Accordingly, examining women characters within isiXhosa literature enables the identification and critique of these conventions. It offers the opportunity to challenge outdated or detrimental depictions and mythologies, promoting a more accurate and multifaceted understanding of the diverse roles and contributions of women in the amaXhosa society and elsewhere in the global village.

With this contextual background in mind, this article aims to conduct a comprehensive African feminist critique of the women characters in Indlal’Inamanyala, with a focus on their depiction, agency, and the negotiation of their identities within the context of a changing society. By employing an African feminist theory, this article pursues to uncover the multifaceted layers that encompass these characters’ experiences, illuminating the broader socio-cultural implications nested in their narratives. Through this scholarly exposition, it is anticipated that a more affluent understanding of the depiction and agency of women characters in Indlal’Inamanyala would be attained, contributing to the ongoing discourse surrounding isiXhosa literature, gender, and cultural identity. As previously outlined, the objective of this article is to unmask and critique the multifaceted ways in which their depictions reflect, challenge and elucidate societal norms, cultural undercurrents, and gender relations within the South African context, paying special attention to the context of amaXhosa.

What is further important to observe is that the expression ‘There is something special about a woman who dominates a man’s world’, as reflected in the title of this article, denotes that a woman who successfully takes charge or excels in a domain or environment typically associated with men stands out in a unique and noteworthy way. It implies admiration or respect for a woman who displays confidence, competence, and leadership qualities within a context that may be traditionally male-dominated. This statement acknowledges the significance of dismantling stereotypes and challenging societal ethical codes, underlining the incomparable qualities of women who excel in such situations. The purposive use of this statement is to motivate and encourage many women and young girls who recurrently suffer subjugation to continue to present themselves at the table as they bring invaluable and exclusive contributions. Nonetheless, the next section focuses on the review of literature concerning the phenomenon of interest.

2. Literature review

2.1. Depiction of women in African literature

The depiction of women in African literature is a multifaceted and evolving exploration that reflects the intricate reciprocation of culture, history, and societal dynamics. African literature, with its diverse array of voices, languages, and contexts, proffers a rich terrain for examining the depiction of women characters and their realities. These depictions serve as mirrors that reflect the intricacies of women’s roles, challenges, agency and contributions within their respective communities. While this is the case, it must be stressed herein that women’s issues or challenges must recurrently be scrutinized in a bid to elicit reasonable solutions to any identified challenges. For instance, Haskell (1979) argues that African literature has, at times, glorified gender stereotypes, depicting women as submissive, secondary, or confined to traditional roles. This then highlights an important concern within the arena of African literature, with a special focus on women. As a matter of fact, isiXhosa literature cannot be ruled out from this perception as it also advanced these stereotypes. While African literature has undoubtedly contributed significantly to cultural representation, understanding, and individualism, it is crucial to recognize that like literature from any region, it is not immune to (re)producing and perpetuating societal prejudices and stereotypes. Given this reality, according to Diko (2023), this suggests that when African literature consistently depicts women in submissive, secondary, or traditional roles, it could potentially advance these problematic stereotypes in the minds of readers. Ultimately, this could contribute to the normalization of disproportionate gender dynamic forces in society, obstructing women’s aspirations and opportunities.

Apart from this, Liao and Ling (2022) contend that modern African literature increasingly underlines women characters who are agents of social change, breaking free from societal constraints to pursue education, careers, and independence. These characters inspire readers, especially young girls, by epitomizing strength, resilience, and determination. On account of this, it is clear that by underlining women who pursue education, careers, and independence, modern African literature encourages readers, especially young minds, to aspire to similar achievements. In fact, these characters serve as role models and sources of inspiration. That is the reason, therefore, Tomkinson (2023) claims that African literature that features women who defy societal constraints helps to dismantle obstructions and push boundaries. This could contribute to real-world reforms by influencing societal attitudes and behaviours. Resultantly, the voices of empowered women in African literature could evoke significant dialogues about gender roles, equality, and women’s privileges. This dialogue is essential for creating social change, particularly in the African context where women are oftentimes regarded as inferior and insignificant in key roles such as leadership and management (Saltis et al., 2023).

Having said that, it must be acknowledged that many African literary narratives also subvert these stereotypes by presenting women characters who contest societal norms and assert their agency. In clarifying this sentiment, Roberts et al. (2023) posit that these literary narratives showcase the resilience and determination of African women, challenging traditional principles and offering a more liberating and diverse perspective on their roles in society. Therefore, by underscoring these narratives, African literature contributes to a broader dialogue about gender justice and cultural transformation. Bearing this in mind, I contend that African literature has a global reach and influence, contributing to broader movements for gender justice and cultural transformation worldwide. This means that by sharing African perspectives and experiences, these literary narratives foster solidarity and collaboration among activists, scholars, and advocates working towards gender equality on a global scale.

Whereas it is appreciated that African literature has the potential to depict women as significant figures in society, Das and Sharma (2023) indicate that African literature consists of a diverse array of literary authors with varying viewpoints and motivations. Just as in any literature, some literary authors may prolongate stereotypes or depict characters in ways that are not accurate or ingenuous, while others work to challenge and subvert these stereotypes (Sweet-Cushman, 2022). The problematic component, therefore, lies in the potential for some literary authors to inadvertently advance destructive stereotypes or inaccuracies, which can potentially advance prejudices and misconceptions (Kent, 2023). Conversely, other literary authors actively work to dismantle these stereotypes, contributing to a more balanced and authentic representation of African societies and identities (Harrison, 2023). This dynamic component underscores the necessity for critical evaluation and discernment when engaging with African literature, in order to differentiate between reinforcing stereotypes and promoting constructive change. This further indicates that historical African literature, particularly from colonial and pre-independence eras, may contain depictions of African women that align with the views of the time (Ida & Tuty, 2023). These depictions could serve as invaluable historical documents, even if they do not align with contemporary perspectives on gender justice.

2.2. The role of african literature in justice for women

African literature plays a significant role in advancing justice for women by providing a platform for critical examination, empowerment, and advocacy (Tompkins et al., 2020). First and foremost, this literature serves as a powerful instrument for illuminating gender-based injustices that women face across the African continent and elsewhere in the world (Mao, 2020). This denotes that through compelling narratives, African authors draw attention to issues such as violence, discrimination, limited access to education and healthcare, and economic imbalances, advancing consciousness and empathy among readers. This further denotes that by exposing the harsh realities that many African women endure, African literature sparks discussions or dialogues that are essential for driving social change and consciousness. While African literature plays a crucial role in raising cognizance, sparking discussions, and driving social change regarding the punitive realities experienced by African women, there are some shortcomings and challenges to consider. For example, access to literature, especially in remote or underserved communities, could be limited due to factors such as the absence of infrastructure, high costs of books, or low literacy rates. This could limit the reach and impact of literary narratives in raising consciousness and driving social change. Over and above this challenge, much African literature is written in colonial or hegemonic languages, which excludes or sideline indigenous languages and cultures. On the grounds of this, language barricades could obstruct the accessibility of literary works to broader audiences and limit their effectiveness in driving social change among linguistically diverse communities.

Second, African literature contributes to the empowerment of women by offering representations of strong, resilient, and dynamic women characters. These characters contest traditional gender roles and ethical codes, serving as inspirations for women and young girls who might see themselves reflected in these literary narratives (Wei et al., 2020). These literary role models foster self-credence and provide the courage to defy limitations, reassuring women to seek education, pursue careers, and participate actively in public life. This means that by presenting women as agents of social change and protagonists in their own stories, African literature contributes to the dismantling of patriarchal systems. Similarly, African literature functions as a vehicle for amplifying women’s voices and perspectives (Kent, 2023). This is against the reality that the literary world provides instrumentality for African women authors to share their experiences, challenges, and visions for a more inclusive society. Consequently, this representation of diverse women’s voices disrupts the narrative monopoly often held by male literary authors, enriching the discourse around gender equality and social justice. In addition to this, by highlighting the intersectionality of identities, African literature addresses how factors like race, class, and sexuality intersect with gender, recognizing the complexities of women’s lives.

In essence, it is clear from the literature above that critiquing women in modern isiXhosa or African literature is crucial for dismantling entrenched stereotypes, buttressing nuanced dialogues about gender roles, and advancing a more authentic representation of women’s diverse experiences. Such critique challenges the status quo, encourages introspection within both literary and societal realms, and paves the way for a more inclusive and empowering narrative structure. In any event, the next section concentrates on the research methodology and theory that is used to address the notable gap from this literature review. As outlined previously, one remarkable gap concerning women in African literature is the underrepresentation of diverse experiences and voices, predominantly those of marginalized groups such as homosexual individuals and women from minority ethnic or cultural backgrounds. Beyond this fact, there is a need for more intricate and intersectional depictions of women that go beyond simplistic conventions and address the complex realities of gender disparity in African societies.

3. Research techniques and theory

This scholarly discourse utilizes Indlal’Inamanyala by Mzwanele Lamati (1994) as a primary source of data. The use of isiXhosa literary narratives, and in particular, this literary drama, as a primary source of data is significant as it provides valuable perceptions into the diverse cultural, historical, and social dimensions of the continent, offering a forum to explore multifarious narratives, identities, and perspectives that contribute to a more comprehensive and multifaceted understanding of African experiences and voices. It must also be highlighted herein that isiXhosa literature does not only recount the experiences of amaXhosa people but has the potential to recount the experiences of many Africans in general. Similarly, it must be noted hereunder that the used pieces of textual evidence from this isiXhosa drama are translated by the researcher into the English language in order to accommodate readers who may not be versed in the isiXhosa language. As a matter of fact, providing translations allows for a more inclusive academic environment by welcoming readers from diverse linguistic backgrounds, and advancing cross-cultural dialogue and understanding.

In this article, several research techniques were followed in reading Indlal’Inamanyala as a primary source of data. In fact, critiquing an isiXhosa literary narrative involves a systemic and multifaceted technique that delves into its various layers of meaning, context, and artistic strategies (Diko, 2022). In this scholarly discourse, the process commenced with a cautious reading of Indlal’Inamanyala to grasp and comprehend its plot, characters, and themes. It became clear that the plot, characterization, and theme surround Black women and the male-orientated system. This initial engagement provided a foundation for deeper evaluation, where attention was paid to literary elements such as symbolism, imagery, and figurative language, which all contribute to the literary text’s aesthetic and emotional impact. The aforementioned research technique was to contextualize Indlal’Inamanyala within its historical, cultural, and social backdrop, as it aids in comprehending the literary author’s intentions and the significance of certain choices in constructing and assembling this drama.

In addition to this process, dissecting the literary narrative structure, point of view and character development helped uncover the underlying motives and perspectives driving the overall literary drama. Thus, critiquing Indlal’Inamanyala’s language and style involved scrutinizing the author’s word choices, sentence structures, and tone to discern how these linguistic components contribute to the overall atmosphere and deliver thematic complexities. Finally, a close reading of this literary drama was considered. On account of this, close reading was a meticulous and immersive interpretive technique that entailed examining the drama’s language, structure, and themes in intricate detail to unravel profound layers of meaning. Fundamentally, close reading required a focused and attentive analysis of individual words, phrases, and sentences, as well as an exploration of their interplay within the larger context of the literary work. Through this technique, the researcher scrutinized the drama’s nuances, such as connotations, allusions, and metaphorical expressions to unravel the author’s intentions and explore the narrative’s underlying messages. Generally, close reading entails considering the rhythm and flow of the prose or poetry and identifying patterns, repetitions, and deviations that contribute to the narrative’s aesthetic impact (McDonald, 2023). This denotes that by immersing oneself in the narrative and observing its finer features, close reading offers a pathway to uncovering subtle thematic connections, character impetuses, and the intricate web of literary craftsmanship that may otherwise remain concealed.

To the same extent, this article applies African feminism as a theory to critique the selected isiXhosa literary drama regarding the depiction of women characters in Indlal’Inamanyala. African feminist theory is a dynamic and evolving intellectual framework that concentrates on the experiences, perspectives, and liberation of women and young girls in Africa (Diko, 2023, pp. 7). It emerges from the intersection of feminist thought and the unique socio-cultural, historical, and political contexts of the African continent (Cruz 2015, pp. 31). African feminist theory challenges and deconstructs prescriptive patriarchal norms, structures, and power dynamics while addressing the complexities of colonial and apartheid legacies, cultural diversity, and economic imbalances that shape women’s lives across different African communities.

In this scholarly discourse, this theory underlines the demand to recognize and amplify the voices of African women, acknowledging their agency, struggles, and contributions within their specific cultural and historical contexts. It encompasses a wide range of topics, including gender equality, reproductive rights, economic empowerment, education, health, and political participation (Diko, 2023). African feminist theorists often emphasize the interconnectedness of gender, race, class, and other social identities, aiming to address the intersecting forms of discrimination and oppression that affect African women (Iqani 2023). Having said that, African feminist theory is not monolithic; it subsumes variegated perspectives, methodologies, and ideologies that mirror the varied realities and struggles of women across the continent (Iqani, 2023). It draws from oral traditions, literature, historical accounts, and contemporary narratives to reclaim and reshape the discourse on gender and power in ways that resonate with African experiences and aspirations. Through this perspective, African feminist theory pursues to transform social norms, policies, and structures to create a more inclusive and just society for all, while valuing the complexities of Africa’s affluent cultural tapestry. Nonetheless, the following section concentrates on the findings and discussions pertaining to the phenomenon of interest. As said earlier, Indlal’Inamanyala is used as a primary source of data to advance the discourses.

4. Findings and discussion

The inception of Indlal’Inamanyala commences with a dominant male character named Magrazula. This character is dominant in an already male-orientated society where women and young girls are subverted. What is further important to observe is that the description of Magrazula in the opening act is characterized by power dynamic forces. This is important to observe given that this drama is surrounded by women characters—MamQhinebe and Magatyeni—who are in actual fact protagonists. The irony, thereof, is that whereas the two women are protagonists, the events are predominantly driven by men, particularly, Magrazula. Inevitably, the presence of a male-dominant character at the beginning of this literary narrative highlights the persistence of patriarchy in the narrative. With this view in mind, I contend that patriarchy, in this literary context, is problematic given that it propagates imbalanced power dynamic forces between men and women, leading to systemic oppression and discrimination against women in various compasses of life. It fortifies detrimental gender stereotypes and norms, limiting women’s autonomy, agency, and opportunities for advancement. Beyond this, patriarchy emasculates social justice and equality by privileging male hegemony and relegating women’s voices and contributions. In this literary drama, Magrazula holds positions of power, authority, and privilege that mirror traditional gender hierarchies. This is observable in Excerpt 1 below:

Kusendlwini kaMagrazula, inkintsela yexhwele.

(It is in Magrazula’s house, the greatest traditional healer.)

The description of the male character as ‘the greatest traditional healer’ in this piece of textual evidence immediately establishes his authority and power within his community. This mirrors the patriarchal structure that places men in positions of leadership and expertise, while women are placed in subordinate roles. The description of the male character as the greatest traditional healer further positions him at the apex of the healing hierarchy that is contested in the African context. By the way, patriarchy is a social system in which men hold primary power and authority, habitually to the detriment of women’s and young girls’ agency and influence. In view of this reality, the description of Magrazula aligns with this structure by assigning him a central and authoritative role within the domain of traditional healing. This reflects broader societal ethical codes where men are predominantly regarded as authoritative figures in various realms within the African continent. Effectively, the African feminist theory in this regard inquires into whether women are excluded or subjugated from attaining similar positions of authority within the traditional healing practice. It explores obstructions that limit women’s access to leadership roles and whether these obstructions are entrenched in gender prejudice or ethnological norms. As evident in this literary drama, women are precluded in leadership roles such as traditional healing.

Bearing this in mind, I contend that the implication of women being precluded from leadership roles such as traditional healing, as depicted in this literary drama, underscores entrenched gender disparities within the cultural and societal fabric. This exclusion not only limits women’s opportunities for leadership and agency but also perpetuates the subjugation of their voices and contributions in configuring ethnological practices and norms. Over and above this, it highlights the necessity for acute examination and challenge of patriarchal structures that restrict women’s access to positions of authority and impact in both traditional and contemporary contexts. As Indlal’Inamanyala progresses, the authoritative position of this dominant male character could be witnessed in Excerpt 2 below:

Ingxakana nje esinayo yile yokuba, kuza kufuneka sisebenzise abafazi, izinto ezingenasibindi ke ezo …

(The only problem we have is that we will have to use women, those are not brave things …)

Applying an African feminist theory, the aforementioned piece of textual evidence exemplifies the objectification of women. The objectification of women is eminently problematic as it reduces them to mere commodities or sexual objects, intensifying destructive gender stereotypes, undermining their agency, and contributing to a culture of partisanship and disrespect. In this article, the term ‘objectification’ should be understood to refer to the reduction of a person to the status of a mere object, typically for the gratification or use of others, discounting their autonomy, dignity, and humanity. Having said that, the phrase ‘we will have to use women’ mirrors a troubling mindset where women are reckoned as objects or tools for men’s purposes. This objectification reduces women to mere instruments, stripping them of agency and autonomy. In addition to this, the act of ‘using’ women dehumanizes them and treats them as means to an end rather than individuals with their own desires, needs, and rights. By the same token, the phrase ‘those are not brave things’ denotes that using women is somehow perceived as less courageous or valorous. This sentiment advances detrimental stereotypes that undermine the importance of women’s contributions and experiences. It implies that women are not worthy of recognition or respect for their actions or roles.

Therefore, I argue that it stands to reason to contend that objectification could lead to adverse psychological impacts, including diminished self-worth and body image issues, as individuals internalize communal messages that equate their value with their physical appearance or utility to others. Furthermore, it impedes evocative interpersonal connections and mutual deference, as it prioritizes superficial qualities over genuine human interactions, empathy, and understanding. What is further important to observe is that the aforementioned piece of textual evidence implicitly intensifies a power dynamic that positions men in a place of authority and control while positioning women as submissive and subordinate. This outlines a broader societal context where patriarchal ethical codes and value systems dictate how men and women should interact, recurrently leading to the subjugation of women. On account of this, African feminist theory underlines the intersection of gender with other identities such as class and culture. While the excerpt does not explicitly mention these intersections, it is consequential to consider how the objectification and devaluation of women may be exacerbated by additional factors like socioeconomic status, as in the case of Magrazula in this literary narrative. In this context, socioeconomic disparities could potentially compound the ostracism of women, leaving them more susceptible to exploitation, abuse, and systemic discrimination. Considering these intersections highlights the complex layers of oppression that women face, underscoring the need for a more nuanced understanding of gender dissimilarity and social justice.

By the same token, African feminist theory takes into account the historical impact of colonization and apartheid on gender relations in the South African context. Colonialism and apartheid introduced and advanced patriarchal ideologies that continue to influence gender dynamics in many African societies, including the amaXhosa society. With this in mind, the aforementioned excerpt reflects a continuation of such colonial and apartheid influences. Ultimately, applying an African feminist theory to this excerpt uncovers how the language used in the literary drama perpetuates the objectification of women and reflects a profoundly ingrained societal norm that devalues women’s agency, experiences, and contributions. In the end, this African feminist critique underscores the importance of challenging these injurious attitudes and working towards a more inclusive and embracing society where women are treated as fully realized individuals rather than tools for men’s goals. In addition to this, this scholarly critique underlines the significance of developing cultural shifts and educational initiatives that promote gender awareness and sensitivity, laying the groundwork for systemic change and societal transformation. This underscores the necessity for collective action and solidarity among individuals, communities, and institutions to address the foundational bases of gender inequality and to create a more just and equitable world for all genders. It is also noteworthy to underline that one of the male characters in Indlal’Inamanyala—Dlezinye—is cognizant of women’s power, potential, and contribution as evidenced in Excerpt 3 below:

Abafazi banezibindi ukufa, nto nje abafuni ukuba iqondwe loo nto.

…

Nto endiyifunayo ke ngoku Dlezinye kukuba uye kundifunela aba bafazi baza kusiphathela ezi ntsana.

(Women are brave enough, they just do not want it to be known.

…

What I want now, Dlezinye is for you to find these women for me so that they can bring these babies to us.)

Applying a feminist theory, the excerpt above depicts women as having hidden bravery, a characteristic that remains concealed due to societal expectations and norms. This accentuates the role of storytelling and isiXhosa literature in amplifying women’s voices and experiences, elucidating the complexities of women’s lives, and challenging hegemonic narratives that ostracize or erase their contributions. In the context of African feminist theory, this could be construed as reflecting the historical and cultural context where women’s strength and courage are overshadowed by traditional gender roles that confine them to domestic spheres. This speaks to the concept of invisible labor that women often perform, their contributions often going overlooked or undervalued. The call to action, expressed in the request for Dlezinye to find these women and have them bring babies who will be mutilated for traditional medical purposes, raises questions about power undercurrents. In terms of African feminist theory, power imbalances between genders are a critical concern. This denotes that the women’s agency in this situation appears limited, as they are expected to fulfill a specific role at the request of someone else—a man. This could evoke parallel broader dialogues about women’s participation in decision-making processes and their autonomy over social choices. As a consequence of this, homogenizing African feminist theory underscores the multifaceted nature of the excerpt. It enunciates the fundamental courage of women while critiquing the societal constraints that suppress their visibility. In addition to this claim, it stresses the importance of examining power subtleties and the intersections of culture and gender within the amaXhosa and/or African context. Resultantly, applying an African feminist perspective emboldens a nuanced understanding of Indlal’Inamanyala that goes beyond superficial interpretation. In contrast to this fact, Excerpt 4 below brings to the fore a notable view of the family hierarchy and how gender imbalances are interpreted:

Kusemzini kaMamQhinebe. UMamQhinebe uhlamba izitya entla phezu kwetafilana yamaplanga. Unyana wakhe, uSiqhiwu, wothe umlilo weenkuni esizikithini sendlu. Le ndlu ibonakala iyeyabantu abahluphekileyo.

(It is at MamQhinebe’s house. MamQhinebe is washing the dishes on the wooden table. His son, Siqhiwu, lit a wood fire in the house. This house seems to belong to poor people.)

In critiquing the provided excerpt through the perspective of African feminist theory, one could identify several dimensions that illuminate gender roles, socioeconomic conditions, and power undercurrents within the depicted scene. African feminist theory encompasses a range of perspectives that center the experiences and struggles of African women within the broader context of colonialism, apartheid, culture, and socioeconomic occurrences. At first glance, the excerpt depicts MamQhinebe, a woman, engaging in the domestic task of washing dishes. This action aligns with conformist gender roles that have recurrently confined women to domestic labor and caregiving responsibilities. This depiction buttresses the conception that women’s contributions are relegated to domestic labor, perpetuating inequalities and dejecting their potential for broader societal participation. By the same token, it prompts critical reflection on the need to contest and dismantle rigid gender ethos that constrain women’s agency and preserve systemic discrimination. Keeping this in mind, African feminist theory underscores the urgency to challenge such gendered dissections of labor, as they prolongate unjust power dynamics between men and women.

In addition to this exposition, the description of the house as belonging to poor people is also significant within the context of African feminist theory. Socioeconomic status intersects with gender in complex ways, disproportionately affecting women. Socioeconomic status refers to an individual’s or a family’s position in society based on factors like income, education, occupation, and wealth. Gender, on the one hand, refers to the social and cultural roles, expectations, and identities associated with being male, female, or non-binary. In the context of this excerpt, poverty could heighten the challenges faced by women, limiting their opportunities for education, healthcare, and economic independence. For instance, women living in poverty could face blockades to accessing essential healthcare services, including reproductive health services, maternal care, and preventative healthcare. This suggests that limited access to healthcare aggravates health disparities and increases the risk of maternal mortality, infant mortality, and other health challenges among women and children. Over and above this, it is perceptive to bear in mind that poverty hampers women’s economic prospects, as they may be obligated to bank on informal or low-paying jobs with little job security or social protections. Ultimately, the lack of access to financial resources, credit, and business opportunities could hinder women’s capability to achieve economic individuality and financial stability. In consideration of this reality, African feminist theory underlines the importance of addressing economic disparities as part of achieving gender liberation and fairness. Similarly, African feminist perspectives highlight the interconnectedness of gender, culture, and colonial histories. In this scene, the traditional roles assigned to MamQhinebe and the socioeconomic conditions of the household are influenced by cultural norms and colonial legacies. For these reasons, African feminist theory encourages a critical examination of these elements to understand how they configure women’s experiences and contribute to their marginalization. During the course of critically reading this selected isiXhosa drama, it becomes apparent that the struggles of women in Indlal’Inamanyala are unambiguously underlined in Excerpt 5 below:

Hayi Gatyeni kunzima kule mihla siphila kuyo. Asisafuni neendwendwe kangangendlela esihlupheka ngayo.

(No Gatyeni, it is difficult these days that we live in. We do not need any more guests as we are suffering.)

This brief piece of textual evidence encapsulates a societal reality where MamQhinebe expresses the challenges of contemporary times, setting the stage for an African feminist critique. Within the framework of African feminist theory, it is significant to acknowledge the historical and ongoing impact of colonization on African societies, with special reference to amaXhosa communities. Colonial powers imposed their ideologies and norms onto indigenous cultures, prompting gender roles and power dynamics. Against this backdrop, African feminist theory highlights the significance of recognizing and resisting these enacted notions of gender, which might manifest in expressions of adversity and suffering. In particular, the phrase ‘No Gatyeni, it is difficult these days that we live in’ determines not only the economic struggles faced by the speaker—MamQhinebe—but also alludes to the broader socio-political context in which these adversities are positioned. On the grounds of this, African feminist theory underscores the necessity of accepting gender disparities within the context of larger systems of oppression, such as economic exploitation and political marginalization. The choice of words in this passage implies a collective experience of adversity within the community, suggesting that women’s and men’s lives are intricately interwoven in their struggles. Over and above this, the passage ‘We do not need any more guests as we are suffering’ carries a layered implication when viewed through an African feminist theory. African feminist theory critiques traditional gender roles and power dynamics, which can be advanced through practices like hospitality. Bearing this in mind, historically, women were assigned the role of caretakers and hosts, with expectations to provide for guests despite their own challenges and setbacks. Thus, this statement could be regarded as a critique of such impositions on women. As a matter of fact, the rejection of additional guests due to suffering signifies a departure from the traditional norm and challenges the assumption that women should always prioritize others’ needs over their own.

In a nutshell, the depiction of women in Indlal’Inamanyala holds significant cultural and social implications. Within this literary narrative, women recurrently occupy multifaceted roles that (re)produce both historical and contemporary eventualities of amaXhosa society as well as the broader African context. These depictions could be perceived as a mirror reflecting the complex interplay between tradition, societal shifts, and gender dynamics. In contrast to this, isiXhosa literature depicts women in roles that align with cultural ethos and expectations, such as caretakers, wives, and mothers. These depictions cast back the preservation of ethnic value systems and the historical roles women have played in maintaining familial and communal structures. Conversely, isiXhosa literature reflects evolving perspectives on gender roles and the changing status of women within the context of modernity. In view of this fact, contemporary isiXhosa literature challenges traditional gender roles and depicts women and young girls as agents of social change, leaders, and individuals who negotiate their identities within shifting cultural settings. This evolution in portrayal signifies a response to global influences, urbanization, and women’s increasing participation in various spheres of society, including education and politics. Comprehensively, the depiction of women in Indlal’Inamanyala encapsulates an intricate interplay between cultural heritage and progressive transformation, illuminating the rudimentary roles women play in both preserving traditions and configuring the future of amaXhosa communities. This does not exclude the broader African landscape. With these scholarly discourses in mind, it is prudent to observe the concluding remarks of this article, hence the next section.

5. Conclusion: bridging the gap between women’s challenges and isiXhosa literature

In the intricate tapestry of isiXhosa literature, an enthralling narrative emerges, one that pursues to bridge the gap between women’s challenges and the broader societal discourse. The threads of this literary narrative are interwoven through voices, poems, and narratives that mirror the multifaceted experiences of women across the African continent, with special reference to amaXhosa. As the literary isiXhosa canon evolves, it becomes increasingly clear that the exploration of women’s challenges is not just a solitary endeavor, but an integral component of the larger dialogue about culture, identity, and progress. IsiXhosa literature, and in particular Indlal’Inamanyala, serves as a powerful platform to address the challenges, triumphs, and aspirations of women, both historically and in the present day. Inevitably, by giving voice to their experiences, isiXhosa literature has the potential to challenge ethical codes, dismantle obstructions, and advance a profound understanding of the complex intersections between gender, tradition, and modernity. In closing, as we navigate the complex fabric of the 21st century, the pursuit of gender impartiality stands as a cornerstone of societal development, and isiXhosa literature emerges as a vital agent of social change and transformation, pushing the boundaries of representation and offering a space for women’s voices to be heard, acknowledged and celebrated. In uniting the discourse surrounding women’s issues with the affluent tapestry of Indlal’Inamanyala, we embark on a transformative journey towards a more inclusive and equitable future for all.

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Mlamli Diko

Mlamli Diko is a lecturer at the University of South Africa (UNISA) in the Department of African Languages. Specifically, he lectures on the language and literature of isiXhosa. His research interests predominantly focus on indigenous African languages, traditional and modern literature, Indigenous African Knowledge Systems (IAKS), and issues concerning colonialism, apartheid, and its influence in the South African context. He also debates, scholarly, issues that pertain to women and young girls in an attempt to uncover women and young girls’ voices. He has published several original research articles in DHET-accredited journals. In the process, he serves as a supervisor and external examiner for postgraduate students.