Investigating Arabic-speaking EFL learners’ understanding of French gender markers: a typological primacy model approach to a third language

Abstract

This study examines how well Arabic-speaking EFL undergraduate students can understand gender-definite articles in French. Forty students studying French language and literature at the University of Jordan’s Faculty of Foreign Languages were equally divided into two groups based on their French language proficiency level (sophomores and seniors). Having studied English as a foreign language for 12 years, these native Arabic speakers answered 17 multiple-choice questions during a 45-minute test at the University of Jordan. The test required participants to select the correct French masculine or feminine article for each target noun. An introspective session was held after the test to obtain an understanding of their results. A t-test was administered to analyze the data and determine if the differences in participants’ responses within each group were statistically significant. Data analysis revealed that the differences between the two groups’ correct answers on the test were statistically significant in favor of the senior group. In addition, the results show a strong correlation between more exposure to French and improved proficiency, drawing on Rothman’s Typological Primacy Model (2011). Given the closer typological congruence between Arabic and French than between English and French, positive transfer was observed between the two languages. It is suggested that some structural analogies—complex inflectional morphology and gender marking—that are highly aligned in L1 and L3 are the reason behind the learners’ reliance on Arabic. It is argued that, in contrast to the early phases of acquisition, positive transfer becomes more pronounced with increased exposure.

Keywords:

• Arabic
• applied linguistics
• French
• third language acquisition
• typological primacy model

Reviewing Editor:

• Jeroen van de Weijer, College of International Studies, Shenzhen University, China

SUBJECTS:

• Psycholinguistics
• Language Acquisition
• Applied Linguistics

1. Introduction

Over the past 20 years, applied linguists have shown increasing interest in the research of L3 acquisition (Alonso & Rothman, 2017; Flynn et al., 2004; Rothman, 2015; Rothman et al., 2019). When it comes to L3 acquisition, researchers have mostly struggled to pinpoint the source language of transfer in the early phases of L3 development, especially in the area of morpho-syntax. Concerning the linguistic transfer from Arabic (L1) to French (L3), students who speak Arabic as a native language and English as a foreign language encounter a challenge, especially in the complex domain of gender marking. The subtleties of gender marking become apparent when participants switch from Arabic, where gender is mainly selected according to vowel endings and initial letters, to French, where gender is often determined according to the definite articles le, la, un, and une. Thus, a research gap exists in comprehending the intricacies of gender markers in the acquisition of French as a third language by speakers of Arabic as a native language and English as a foreign language. There has been little investigation into the particular difficulties faced by this group of learners when it comes to understanding French gender markers. Due to the linguistic disparities between Arabic and French, especially concerning gender distinctions, learners encounter certain challenges in understanding the complexities of French grammar. This gap is important because of its impact on efficient communication, grammatical precision, and cultural integration. Proficiency in gender markers is not just about language skills but also a key to grasping the cultural subtleties intertwined with language usage. Studying how gender markers are acquired can improve language training for those who learn French as a second or foreign language. Thus, bridging this study gap is crucial for improving our comprehension of language acquisition processes and language education practices.

This study adopts Rothman’s (2011) Typological Primacy Model (TPM). It examines the challenges encountered by speakers of Arabic as a first language and English as a foreign language in understanding French gender markers, emphasizing the potential for both types of transfer to be beneficial when acquiring gender markers in French (see Cook, 2008; Gass et al., 2020; Zibin et al., 2020). According to the TPM, the mind automatically chooses the background language that is the most linguistically close during the initial stages of learning a new language (L3) (Rothman, 2011). According to Rothman (2015) and Jamali et al. (2023), this approach emphasizes the significance of typological similarities and variations between languages in influencing the language acquisition process.

Arabic nouns have an innate gender generally determined by the form of the word, which adds a degree of complexity lacking in French, where gender assignment seems more random. In other words, the form or morphology of an Arabic noun usually determines its inherent gender. Arabic nouns’ gender may generally be determined by analysing linguistic features such the word’s root, pattern, or endings. Gender assignment in French may seem arbitrary or random, as it is not solely based on linguistic features, but also influenced by historical, cultural, or phonological variables. In addition, because English, as one of the learners’ foreign languages, lacks a grammatical gender system, things become more complicated, and could make it more difficult for them to rapidly understand the gender marking system in French.

The purpose of this study is to investigate research questions about the difficulties caused by the differences between the gender marking systems in Arabic and French. In what ways do these differences in language appear during the process of learning a language? How much of a challenge is it for participants who speak Arabic as a native language and English as a Foreign Language to determine the gender of some French definite articles? How much does their exposure to French affect how well they understand gender markers in French? The study also looks into the possibility of positive transfer, in which pre-existing language knowledge facilitates language learning. Background information for this investigation is given in the section that follows.

2. Background

2.1. Gender in definite articles in French

French linguistics is based on the usage of definite articles, represented by le, la, les, and l’, for masculine or feminine words that start with a vowel or a silent h. These articles do more than just define a word; they are essential to maintaining accuracy and coherence in communication. They serve as guidelines for precisely defining things or thoughts in the French context, rather than just conveying gender and number. This accuracy is demonstrated, for example, by les livres (the books), la maison (the house), and le chat (the cat), where each article corresponds to the gender and number of the modified noun. These linguistic components have complex relationships with word endings, which greatly aid in the determination of number and gender.

Analyzing certain nouns reveals how gender and number determine how well they agree with the verb. Word endings have a key role in providing important cues about gender. -eur, -ment, or -isme are common endings for masculine nouns, which provide identifiable cues. However, feminine nouns usually take on suffixes such as -tion, -ité, or -ure, which clearly indicate their gender. This delicate interaction between endings serves as a guide for verb conjugation and results in a sentence’s harmonious agreement.

When creating precise and coherent phrases, these differences in endings are crucial. For learners or speakers of French, they are essential markers that enable them to clearly distinguish between singular and plural forms, as well as between masculine and feminine genders. Understanding endings, closely related to using definite articles, lays the groundwork for grasping the complexity of the French language.

2.2. Gender in Arabic and English

Gender fundamentally influences the structure of Arabic. The gender system in Arabic is binary, classifying nouns, pronouns, and even inanimate objects as either male or feminine. For example, the word table (طاولة) is feminine, whereas the word wall (حائط) is masculine (see Altakhaineh et al., 2020). In Arabic, vowel endings and initial letters play a significant role in determining the grammatical gender of nouns. This gender assignment affects a number of language components, including adjective agreements, verb conjugations, noun forms, and the use of appropriate pronouns (Jarrah & Zibin, 2016; Ryding, 2005). Gender grammatical markers are unique and have an impact on how sentences are put together (Holes, 2004). In Arabic, for example, the definite article ‘ال’ is not feminine or masculine like in French; rather, its form remains the same, independent of the gender of the noun that follows it. Nouns in English lack a grammatical gender, and the definite article is always used with the same meaning regardless of the noun’s gender. There is only one definite article in English, i.e.,. Its form is gender-neutral and can be applied to both masculine and feminine nouns. Learners must comprehend gender classification because it influences language use in spoken and written contexts.

2.3. Theoretical framework

Typology is a branch of linguistics that scrutinizes the structural and functional aspects of languages, categorizing them into different types. Typological similarity or distance gauges the closeness or dissimilarity between languages regarding their typological features. Various linguistic elements, including phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics, facilitate typological comparisons. According to linguist Jason Rothman’s Typological Primacy Model (TPM), first introduced in 2010 and subsequently refined in 2011, 2013, 2015, and 2019, the mind automatically selects the background language most similar to it when acquiring a new language (L3). TPM categorizes transfer as either positive or negative. Positive transfer usually occurs when the new language (L3) shares more similarities with the learner’s first language (L1) than the second language (L2), while negative transfer mostly occurs when L3 is more akin to L2 than L1. The TPM (Rothman, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2015) asserts that all grammatical structures from previously acquired languages are potentially accessible for transfer. The TPM allows for both positive and negative manifestations of transfer. According to Rothman (2015: 189), ‘multilingual transfer is selective’, with the parser’s interpretation of language cues determining selectivity. As it analyzes the incoming L3 input, the parser looks for syntactic patterns in the lexicon, phonology, morphology, and syntax. Based on this hierarchical structure, activation reaches a considerable basic level with one of the previous languages (Puig-Mayenco et al., 2018).

Furthermore, the TPM expects full transfer from the very beginning of L3 acquisition. According to Rothman (2013), wholesale transfer happens as soon as the parser is able to recognize L3 language information because it is motivated by general cognitive economy, which is the idea of minimal effort in generating cognitive learning paths. Rothman (2015) goes on to suggest that full transfer should be completed at the earliest practicable stage of language acquisition in order to prevent repetitive learning attempts and lessen the cognitive load brought on by excessive linguistic structures. Primarily focused on the initial phases of L3 acquisition, TPM asserts that background languages significantly influence the nascent state of L3 grammar and linguistic aspects. It also acknowledges that other factors, such as input quality and quantity, proficiency levels, onset age, and individual differences, contribute to L3 development and eventual proficiency. Empirical validation of TPM stems from numerous studies exploring different language combinations and linguistic domains. Prominent research studies that support the tenets of TPM include the following: Rothman and Cabrelli Amaro (2010) examined the L3 acquisition of Brazilian Portuguese by Spanish-English and English-Spanish bilinguals, and discovered that regardless of the order of acquisition, the L3 learners retained the syntax and semantics of adjectives from the most similar language. Rothman (2011) proposed the TPM as a theory that explains how the mind selects the most similar background language as the source of transfer in L3 acquisition, and argued that the timing of acquisition and the level of proficiency are important factors that affect the typological similarity or distance between the languages.

Regardless of the order of acquisition, Rothman (2013) demonstrated how L3 learners transferred the characteristics of the most similar language in terms of cognitive economy and non-redundancy. Applying the TPM to the L3 acquisition of Romance languages by English-Spanish and Spanish-English bilinguals was successful in achieving this. The research adds to the body of theory by giving theoretical reasons and real-world examples of how important typological similarity and distance are in L3 transfer. Additionally, the research offers examples of how the L3 learners incorporated elements from Spanish or English, like the pro-drop parameter, verb movement parameter, and null subject parameter, into the L3 Romance languages.

Mayo (2012) examined several models, including the L2 Status Factor Model (L2SF), the Cumulative Enhancement Model (CEM), and the TPM. Through a comparison of their hypotheses and empirical data, García-Mayo offered significant insights into the function of background languages in second language acquisition. Puig-Mayenco et al. (2018) examined the L3 acquisition of Catalan by bilinguals who were English-Spanish and Spanish-English in a different paper. According to their research, L3 learners, independent of acquisition order, transmitted the pragmatics and syntax of null subjects from the most related language. Additionally, the evolution of phonetic complexity in Arabic, Berber, English, and French was examined by Gayraud et al. (2018). They discovered differences in syllable structure, stress patterns, and phonetic inventory between languages by analyzing voice samples from adults and children. The study added to the theoretical framework (TPM) by showing how typological similarity and distance affect learning a third language’s sounds and giving theoretical reasons for these effects. It also included examples of how Arabic-English bilinguals learning L3 French could transfer characteristics from Arabic or English to L3 French, such as word stress, vowel length, and consonant clusters.

More recently, Jamali et al. (2023) looked at how early phases of learning a third language (L3) are impacted by languages that have already been learned. Two sets of L3 learners—27 individuals studying L3 French and 26 individuals learning L3 German—constituted the sample. A grammaticality judgment test (GJT) and an element rearrangement task (ERT) were used to collect data on where noun adjuncts and attributive adjectives were placed. Both groups spoke Persian as their first language and English as their second language. Researchers characterized participants based on two levels of ability in their second language: intermediate and advanced. The findings revealed that L3 German learners performed better in both tasks than their L3 French counterparts: placing noun adjuncts in the GJT task and placing attributional adjectives in the other task. When it came to the ERT noun adjunct task, the L3 groups performed at similar levels. Moreover, there was no discernible impact based on the competency level of the second language. This study showed that the similarity in type between L2 English and German might explain why learning German made it easier to do the task in the L3 German group but not in the L3 French group. These results are consistent with the Typological Primacy Model (TPM) of second language acquisition, indicating that L3 learners follow the typological patterns of the languages they have learned before.

Previous studies that adopted the TPM as their theoretical framework have consistently provided support for its main tenets. However, there is a notable gap in the existing literature, as no studies have specifically examined gender marking in L3 (French) among participants whose native language is Arabic, and who also speak English as a foreign language. This study aims to address a gap in the existing literature. By adopting the TPM as the theoretical framework, this research not only contributes to the existing body of knowledge but also seeks to assess the explanatory power of the TPM in the specific context of gender marking in multilingual language acquisition.

2.4. Previous studies on learning French as a third language

Numerous scholarly investigations have explored the impact of the mother tongue on the process of learning French as a second or third language. According to these studies (e.g., Bérubé & Marinova-Todd, 2014; Fall, 2020; Guttfreund 1990; Korkmaz, 2013; Leung, 2007; Listhaug et al., 2021; Smith & Baker, 2007), the mother language can have a positive or negative effect on the acquisition of French, depending on a number of factors. For instance, Leung (2007) investigated how native speakers of Cantonese from Hong Kong acquire articles and related nominal functional features in French and English, such as the distinction between singular and plural and the classifier’s status. There were two experimental investigations in the study. Which aspects of first language (L1) grammar will transfer into the early stages of learning a second language (L2) and the subsequent developmental path is a topic of debate in the research on generative SLA. The study provides data from L1 Cantonese–L2 English and L1 Cantonese–L2 English–L3 French, obtained from learners with a range of ability levels using a number of experimental tasks, in an attempt to provide context for these ongoing arguments. The results primarily support the Full Transfer, Full Access viewpoint, stating that there is significant transfer without harm to second language acquisition (SLA).

In another study, Smith and Baker (2007) aimed to determine whether variations in cross-language similarity among English-French and English-German vowels would lead to distinctions in accurately recognizing and distinguishing French and German vowels (i, y, and u). Additionally, the study explored whether these perceptual differences across languages would extend to variances in accurately identifying and discriminating vowels in a new, third language. The findings indicate that learners exposed to a language with a more noticeable dissimilarity from their native language (L1) are better able to generalize their perception of their second language (L2) vowels to a novel third language (L3).

The primary focus of Korkmaz (2013) was to investigate the language learning strategies most and least commonly utilized by ELT learners when acquiring German or French as their third language (L3). Through a comparison of independent samples t-test results and mean scores between the two groups, the study examined whether there are any discernible differences in the use of language learning strategies. Additionally, the research aimed to identify correlations between learners’ strategy utilization and their overall success. The quantitative findings indicate that participants from both groups employed similar strategies, with compensation strategies being the most frequently utilized and affective strategies being the least frequently employed. Furthermore, there was no significant positive correlation found between overall strategy use and success, except for the memory strategies employed by learners studying French. Notably, a negative correlation was identified between learners’ use of affective strategies and academic success when learning German.

Bérubé and Marinova-Todd (2014) report that an increasing proportion of multilingual students studying French as a third language (L3) and English as a second language (L2) is changing the demographic makeup of French immersion (FI) programs across Canada. Despite this change, little is known about the multilingual students in FI programs’ growth of their reading skills and French language competency. The purpose of their study was to investigate the relationship between language competence and literacy abilities in the L2, as well as the relationship between language proficiency and literacy skills in the L3, and sociolinguistic factors and metalinguistic awareness. 55 students, enrolled in early FI programs, with an average age of eleven years and six months, made up the sample. They were evaluated at the end of Grade 6. After adjusting for characteristics like the amount of reading in French and morphological awareness in English, the study discovered through multiple regression analyses that spoken language proficiency and reading comprehension in English predict equivalent skills in French. According to the report, multilingual participants continue to acquire age-appropriate oral language fluency and reading skills in both English and French, even while FI programs primarily utilize French.

Recently, the study conducted by Listhaug et al. (2021) examined the process by which L1 speakers of Norwegian, whose L2 is English, learn to shift verbs in their L3 language, French. The study investigated two types of sentences including lexical verbs, where Norwegian, English, and French demonstrate systematic differences, in order to investigate the impact of previously acquired languages on L3 acquisition: beginning declarative main clauses that are not subject (a) and subject (b) that have a brief sentence-medial adverbial. Participants completed tasks involving acceptability rating for both L2 and L3. The findings did not point to a language having a special status as a source of transfer. Rather, there were hints that the learning of L3 French could be influenced by both previous languages. The hypothesis put forth by the researchers was that non-target transfer into the L3 might result from each previous language’s surface word order having some similarities to French. Furthermore, there was less indication of L2 transfer in the L3 in relation to higher proficiency in the L2.

A significant gap remains in the literature when it comes to the particular context in which Arabic is the first language (L1), English is the foreign language (L2), and French is the third language (L3). This is despite the fact that numerous studies have examined the effects of first language, second language, and other linguistic and sociolinguistic factors on the acquisition of French as a second or third language. Although previous research has examined the connections between various language influences, it has mainly focused on language learning strategies, phonological awareness, cross-linguistic similarity, and sociolinguistic factors, underscoring the sociolinguistic nature of language acquisition. But in this broad topic, no research has been done on French gender marking in the definite articles because Arabic and English have different gender marking systems than French.

3. Methodology

3.1. Overview

Our study employed a cross-sectional approach to investigate how speakers of Arabic as a native language and English as a foreign language, at various competency levels, acquire French definite article gender markers. The reason for choosing this design lies in its capability to capture a snapshot of learners’ language abilities and developmental trajectories over time. We aim to study how different degrees of exposure to French affect the acquisition of gender markers by comparing the performance of second-year (sophomore) and fourth-year (senior) students on a multiple-choice test.

3.2. Sample

Forty undergraduate Arabic-native speakers who have studied English as a foreign language for 12 years at school and are majoring in French at the University of Jordan’s Faculty of Foreign Languages participated in the study. Two groups were formed out of these participants: Twenty second-year (sophomore) students who had studied French for a full year. They enrolled in different courses that covered syntax, semantics, morphology, and phonology in French. There were also twenty fourth-year senior students, who had studied French for two more years and participated in extra classes and activities to improve their language skills. Purposive sampling was used in our study to specifically choose two different student groups according to their French proficiency level, or more specifically, their years of exposure to French. The first group was made up of second-year students who had studied French for a full year, while the second group was made up of fourth-year students who had studied French for two more years, for a total of four years. In this case, deliberate selection of purposeful sampling was made to guarantee that each group’s members possessed particular traits pertinent to the study’s goals. That is, the type of purposive sampling used in this study is Criterion Sampling, which is evident from the choice of participants based on specific criteria relevant to the study’s objectives (see Altakhaineh et al., 2024). In criterion sampling, participants are chosen based on predetermined criteria that are deemed crucial for the study. This form of sampling ensures that participants possess certain characteristics or experiences necessary to effectively address the research question. All of the participants had taken English as a foreign language in school for the previous twelve years, and they had all received high marks on the English placement exam when they first enrolled in the institution. According to Rothman (2011), the degree of competency and the time of acquisition play a significant role in determining how similar or different a language is typologically. Crucially, not a single student showed signs of language impairment.

Furthermore, the homogeneity of our sample was guaranteed through the use of particular controls, excluding the gender of the participants, which was not a variable in this study. Excluded from our study were students who had studied in France or another French-speaking country, had a parent who spoke the language, had taken the DELF, TEF, or TCF exams successfully, and/or had travelled to France. The purpose of this meticulous selection procedure was to produce a more homogeneous and regulated participant pool so that our study could concentrate on the distinct effects of L1 Arabic and L2 English on the learning of French gender marking. In terms of ethical considerations, the exam was only taken by students who voluntarily participated in the study, as explained in the Appendix. This strategy upholds the research’s ethical norms by ensuring voluntary and informed involvement.

3.3. Data collection

One of the authors, who teaches in the French program at The University of Jordan, distributed hard copies of the multiple-choice test containing seventeen items at the university campus. The options were: I don’t know option, the feminine article la, and the masculine article le (see Appendix for a copy of the test). The first option is displayed to decrease the probability of choosing an inaccurate response by 33.3% (refer to Zibin, 2016). The students had to choose the article that matched the target noun’s gender. The test’s sentences were thoughtfully designed so as to avoid giving participants any ideas about which article to select. A portion of the vocabulary tested on the students was drawn from their course materials, while some terms were not covered there. The following was the test’s structure:

• Group where the pronunciation is close to Arabic, and also the gender and meaning is the same in both languages: Le kiosque – ‘the kiosk’, Le magasin, ‘the store’ Le tarif ‘the rate’, La boussole ‘the compass’, and La médaille ‘the medal’. There is a possibility here for positive transfer.

• Group of words with a masculine ending but they are feminine, or vice versa, and some words’ pronunciation is close to English: La ferveur ‘the enthusiasm’ La lueur – ‘the glow’, La douleur ‘the pain’, La candeur ‘the candor’, Le mausolée ‘the mausoleum’, and Le trophée ‘the trophy’.

• Group of words that either have masculine or feminine endings: Le virement ‘the transfer’, La sculpture ‘the sculpture’, and La mission ‘the mission’

• The third group included controls and fillers.

The test lasted for approximately 45 minutes for each group and was administered at the Faculty of Foreign Languages at the University of Jordan. After the completion of the test, the researcher who administered the test engaged in an introspective session that lasted approximately 15 minutes for each group to delve into the students’ perspectives and reflections on their test-taking experiences. This involved discussing with the students the challenges they encountered during the test and understanding the strategies they employed. Specifically, the aim was to discern whether the students relied on their native language, Arabic, or the foreign language, English, when responding to the test items. The introspective session served as a valuable opportunity to gather qualitative data regarding the students’ cognitive processes, decision-making strategies, and language use preferences. By conducting this session, the authors aimed to enhance their understanding of the factors influencing the students’ performance and gain insights that could contribute to a more comprehensive analysis of the test results. The use of tape recording ensured the accurate capture and later analysis of the students’ reflections, adding depth to the research methodology (see Altakhaineh et al., 2022).

3.4. Data analysis

The author, who works as an instructor in the French program, corrected the test during the data analysis phase. A scoring system was used in this assessment, awarding one point for each right response and zero points for wrong answers. This methodology facilitated an uncomplicated and uniform evaluation of the test takers’ performance. A t-test was performed to examine the data in more detail and determine whether the observed differences in participant answers within each group were statistically significant (see Korkmaz, 2013; Zibin et al., 2023). The t-test is a reliable statistical method for comparing the means of two groups—in this case, the answers from two participant groups (see Field, 2013). This analysis aimed to provide a quantitative measure of the significance of any observed variations in performance, which contributes valuable insights into potential differences in language proficiency or test-taking strategies among the groups under investigation.

4. Results and discussion

To provide answers to these questions, Table 1 displays the t-test results of the differences between two groups’ answers on the multiple-choice test.

Table 1. T-test results of the differences between two groups’ answers on the multiple-choice test.

Group	Mean	SD	SEM	df	t value	Sig
Second Year (A)	10.29	6.05	1.47	16	2.7247	0.015
Fourth year (B)	12.53	5.11	1.24

Based on Table 1, it is evident that fourth-year students (Group B), who have had an additional three years of exposure to French, outperformed second-year students (Group A), who had exposure to French for only one year. The mean scores for Group B (12.53) were higher than those for Group A (10.29), which suggests a positive correlation between the duration of exposure to French and performance in learning French gender definite articles. The differences between the two groups’ correct answers on the test were statistically significant in favor of Group B. The discrepancy in performance between Group A and B highlights the potential impact of extended exposure to a third language (L3) on students’ ability to grasp specific linguistic features, such as French gender definite articles. The findings align with the notion that increased exposure and experience with a language contribute to a deeper understanding and proficiency. These results also emphasize the significance of a longitudinal approach in language learning, advocating for extended exposure to foster a more accurate comprehension of linguistic features.

To explore the possibility for positive transfer, Table 2 presents the number of correct answers on the words that have similar gender in Arabic and French.

Table 2. Number of correct answers on the words that have similar gender in Arabic and French.

	Group A	Group B
Le kiosque	10	11
Le magasin	15	18
Le tarif	6	7
La boussole	7	8
La médaille	1	12
	39	56

In Table 2, Group B consistently outperformed Group A across all words. The results in this table suggest the potential for positive transfer between Arabic and French, particularly concerning gender agreement. The words in the table, such as Le kiosque, Le magasin, Le tarif, La boussole, and La médaille, do not only sound similar and have similar meanings in both languages, i.e. kiʃk, maxzan, taʕrifeh, bu:saleh, and mida:lyah, respectively, but also share similar gender in both Arabic and French (see Rothman & Cabrelli Amaro 2010). Group B, with more extended exposure to French, demonstrated higher correct answer rates, indicating a positive transfer of knowledge.

It is possible that the Arabic-speaking students in Group B used their knowledge of gender assignment in Arabic to identify comparable patterns in French. This demonstrates that learners’ familiarity with the gender structures in Arabic had a positive impact on their ability to assign gender to French terms that corresponded to their Arabic words. These findings are consistent with those of Leung (2007), who hypothesized that learners of second languages can make use of the linguistic patterns, structures, and abilities they have acquired in their native tongue. These findings, however, conflict with those of Listhaug et al. (2021), who contended that no particular language had a privileged standing as a source of transfer. The positive transfer that took place in our trial may highlight the fact that students can use their native language skills to improve their third language ability. However, the findings contradict those of Smith and Baker (2007), who hypothesized that learners who are exposed to a language that differs more noticeably from their first language (L1) will be better able to transfer their understanding of the vowels in their second language (L2) to a new third language (L3).

Participants in Group A selected their responses for phrases (5, 7, 8, 11) based on their experience, indicating their familiarity with the words, based on the students’ responses from the introspective session. Nonetheless, certain participants stated that they selected the right response in question (7) due to its near resemblance in pronunciation to the masculine Arabic term ‘definition’, taʕri:f. Furthermore, three participants selected the right response in question (8) due to the word’s close resemblance in pronunciation to the feminine Arabic word bu:saleh, which means ‘compass’. Numerous participants in Group B reported that their ability to guess the gender of the French definite articles was mostly aided by comparing Arabic and French.

By interpreting this data using the TPM (Rothman, 2011, 2013, 2015, 2019), we propose that students’ native language may have an impact on how they approach learning a third language. Negative transfer typically happens when L3 is more similar to L2 than L1, and positive transfer typically happens when the learner’s third language (L3) is more similar to their first language (L1) than to their second language (L2). In this instance, the native tongue of the students could follow different gender norms than French. Students may not have had enough exposure to gender differences in definite articles during their early exposure to the language in their second year of study. As a result, they were unable to fully internalize these distinctions and were forced to guess the gender of the French definite article based on their responses during the introspective session. It is said that learners who are not exposed to as much of the target language fall back more on the rules and structures of their mother tongue to make up for knowledge deficits. Positive transfer is anticipated to be more controlled as students advance and have more exposure to the target language (as in the fourth year). With further exposure, students are able to recognize trends, parallels, and discrepancies between the target language and their mother tongue. Here, learners may have benefited from the positive transfer as they became aware of the parallels between Arabic and French, which improved their comprehension of specific linguistic elements.

Our findings demonstrate that, as participants in Group B during the introspective session stated, positive transfer becomes more regulated with more exposure. Increased exposure to the target language helps learners become more proficient in identifying parallels between it and their native tongue by enhancing their awareness of its typological traits. Increased exposure helps learners become more adept at deliberately applying their native language’s typological knowledge to the target language. Moreover, the TPM is consistent with the relationship that exists between the development of proficiency, informed comparisons, and positive transfer. More analogies between their mother tongue and the target language can be drawn by proficient learners, who can then use these typological parallels to aid in positive transfer.

However, the approach acknowledges that as learners improve their proficiency in the target language, the influence of the native language may gradually diminish. Learners may form language-specific cognitive representations with more exposure and practice, which would lessen the influence of the mother tongue. Based on their responses in the introspective session, Group B’s four years of exposure to L3 may not have been sufficient for them to acquire language-specific cognitive representations of L3, as they continue to purposefully define gender in French using Arabic.

Table 3 shows the number of correct answers for words with a masculine ending but are feminine, and some resemble English pronunciation. Table 4 shows the number of correct answers for words with either a masculine or feminine ending, making it easier to determine the gender of the definite article.

Table 3. Number of correct answers on the words that have a masculine ending but they are feminine and some resemble English pronunciation.

	Group A	Group B
La ferveur	16	16
La lueur	0	8
La douleur	9	18
La candeur	15	15
Le mausolée	17	19
Le trophée	8	15
	65	91

Table 4. Number of correct answers on the words that have either masculine or feminine endings.

	Group A	Group B
La sculpture	2	7
La mission	16	17
Le virement	16	19
Total	34	43

Group B did better than Group A, as shown in Table 3 (91 accurate answers to 65 for Group A); Table 4 also shows this. Table 3 shows that Le mausolée, ‘the mausoleum’, received the highest number of correct answers. Based on the results of the introspective session, 11 participants in Group A stated they translated the word to Arabic, ضريح, and responded according to the word’s gender, which is also masculine, while 4 individuals said they remembered this term because of its difficult ending. Several nouns, e.g. Le trophée, have feminine endings but the definite article is masculine. Other nouns, like La lueur, have masculine endings but the definite article is feminine. This could explain the low percentage of correct responses on several problems, particularly those from Group A. During the introspective session, members of Group A stated that these words were ambiguous and therefore presented challenges. These findings demonstrate the diversity between Arabic and French, despite their shared gender marking system. As a result, linguistic differences between the gender marking systems in L1 and L3 have an impact on language acquisition.

Regarding the impact of English on students’ responses, it is evident that words which are similar to English nouns did not assist participants in identifying the gender of the French definite article, as indicated by the majority of participants during the introspective session (see Le trophée, La candeur, La sculpture, La mission). This is because English nouns do not naturally have gender. The effectiveness of relying just on English language knowledge was lower than that of learners whose native language, like Arabic, had a gendered structure. This propensity to fall back to their L1 shows that, even if English is the more recent language in their linguistic repertoire, learners may give priority to the characteristics of their L1 when it shares typological similarities with L3 over the lack of gender marking in English.

Despite the fact that Arabic and French are members of distinct language families (Romance and Semitic, respectively), there are some linguistic traits or structures that are more similar between Arabic and French than between French and English. In typology, Arabic and French share a gender system that is less evident in English, as well as complicated inflectional morphology. The extensive inflectional system of French is well-known, especially when it comes to gendered articles, verb conjugations, and noun-adjective agreement. Arabic includes a sophisticated system of inflections as well, utilizing intricate patterns of root consonants and affixes to express different grammatical aspects. In contrast, the inflectional system in English is relatively simpler.

Learners may unconsciously notice shared features between L1 and L3 in the early stages of acquisition and possibly do so consciously with more exposure to L3. An all-or-nothing transfer is not necessarily assumed by the TPM. It allows for the possibility that learners may use structural analogy, identifying certain elements in the L3 that are similar to their L1, even if the overall typological distance is substantial. Certain linguistic features may be more cognitively salient to learners. Learners may naturally lean towards relying on Arabic structures if Arabic gender rules are particularly salient or distinct in their minds. Based on their exposure and proficiency, learners may believe that some aspects of linguistic knowledge are transferable. They may use Arabic as a default reference point if they feel more confident with Arabic. These results align with those of Jamali et al. (2023) whose study demonstrated the positive influence on task performance observed in the L3 German group and the lack of facilitative impact in the L3 French group. The researchers explained that this could be attributed to the typological resemblance shared between L2 English and German. In general, these observations are in agreement with the complexities of cross-linguistic influence and the selective nature of learners’ reference to their linguistic repertoire when they face challenges in acquiring a new language, especially one with grammatical features not present in their native or dominant language.

5. Conclusion and recommendations

This study has explored the impact of French degree of exposure on the comprehension of gender-definite articles among speakers of Arabic as a native language and English as a foreign language who are learning French as a third language. Drawing from Rothman’s Typological Primacy Model, which highlights the significance of prolonged exposure to a language for proficiency development, our findings have demonstrated the importance of extended exposure to French for enhanced language performance. The observed ability of participants with greater exposure to French to outperform their peers reveals the essential role of immersion and practice in language acquisition. Moreover, our study has highlighted the complexities inherent in understanding gender marking systems, particularly the challenges posed by discrepancies between noun endings and definite article genders in French. These findings shed light on the importance of addressing linguistic differences between learners’ native and target languages in language instruction. Pedagogically, these insights suggest the need for educators to adopt proactive strategies that acknowledge and accommodate learners’ diverse linguistic backgrounds. This includes tailoring instruction to align with learners’ native languages and considering differences in gender marking systems. Educators can enhance language learning results and promote good transfer among learners by creating a more inclusive and flexible language education environment. Furthermore, including activities that specifically focus on gender marking systems and offer plenty of chances for practice and immersion in the target language can improve learners’ understanding and skill level.

Acknowledgements

We would like to express our gratitude to Professor Adnan Al-Smadi, Dean of the School of Foreign Languages at the University of Jordan, for his encouragement and support of this research project. We would also like to extend our thanks to the students who participated in this study.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Aseel Zibin

Aseel Zibin is Associate Professor of English Language and Linguistics at the Department of English Language and Literature at the University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan. She obtained her PhD in Linguistics/Cognitive Semantics from Newcastle University, UK. She is mainly interested in cognitive semantics, pragmatics, discourse analysis, and second language acquisition.

Ashraf Allawama

Ashraf Allawama is Assistant Professor of French Language and Linguistics at the Department of French Language and Literature at the University of Jordan, Amman/Jordan. He obtained his PhD in Language Sciences\General Linguistics, and Phonetics from the Université de Nantes, France. He is mainly interested in syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and language acquisition.

Mohammad Akayleh

Mohammad Akayleh is a linguist and a B.A. student at the Department of English Language and Literature at the University of Jordan (GPA 3.70). His academic journey is marked by a commitment to excellence and a deep understanding of language. He is mainly interested in semantics, pragmatics, literature, and AI-assisted translation.

Karam Naimat

Karam Naimat is a bachelor’s student of applied English at the Department of English Language and Literature at the University of Jordan. He is in his third year and is interested in phonetics, pragmatics, and interpretation.

Appendix

A copy of the administered test:

Nom: ………………………………

Prénom: ……………………………

Age: ……………………………….

En quelle année? …………………….

Merci de répondre aux questions suivantes, avant de commencer l’expérience.

1. Un de vos parents est français?

• - oui

• - non

1. Avez-vous déjà étudié le français à l’école ou au lycée?

• - oui

• - non

1. Avez-vous un diplôme de DELF/TEF/TCF ou équivalent?

• - oui

• - non

1. Avez-vous déjà voyagé ou séjourné en France ou dans un pays francophone?

• - oui

• - non

1. Avez-vous des problèmes de santé liés à la réflexion ou à la vue?

• - oui

• - non

Ce questionnaire a pour objectif de mener une étude linguistique. Les réponses ainsi que les noms des participants resteront anonymes. Le passage de ce test est gratuit, volontaire et n‘affectera en aucun cas les notes des étudiants dans leurs cours. Les participants au questionnaire seront remerciés dans l‘article. Après avoir complété le test, nous demandons aux participants de fournir des explications sur le choix de leurs réponses.

Lu et approuvé,

Signature:

Merci de choisir la bonne réponse pour les phrases suivantes:

1. ……….kiosque près de la station de métro vend des journaux et des livres.

   1. Le

   2. La

   3. Je ne sais pas

2. ………ferveur de la foule lors du concert était incroyable.

   1. Le

   2. La

   3. Je ne sais pas

3. …….virement bancaire est nécessaire pour confirmer la réservation.

4. Le

5. La

6. Je ne sais pas

7. La personne ……….a gagné la médaille d‘or était très déterminée.

8. Qui

9. Que

10. Je ne sais pas

11. ………magasin en face a plusieurs styles de vêtements.

12. Le

13. La

14. Je ne sais pas

15. À la tombée de la nuit,……… lueur des étoiles devient visible.

16. Le

17. La

18. Je ne sais pas

19. ……….tarif du billet d‘entrée au parc est abordable pour les étudiants.

20. Le

21. La

22. Je ne sais pas

23. ……….boussole est un outil essentiel pour la navigation en pleine nature.

24. Le

25. La

26. Je ne sais pas

27. ………sculpture dans le parc est une œuvre d‘art remarquable.

28. Le

29. La

30. Je ne sais pas

31. L’artiste …………j’admire le plus est Picasso.

32. Qui

33. Que

34. Je ne sais pas

35. Elle a reçu ……….médaille d‘or pour sa performance exceptionnelle lors de la compétition.

36. Le

37. La

38. Je ne sais pas

39. ………douleur dans sa jambe ne s‘améliore pas, elle doit consulter un médecin.

40. Le

41. La

42. Je ne sais pas

43. ………candeur de cette fille a conquis le cœur de tous ceux qui l‘entourent.”

44. Le

45. La

46. Je ne sais pas

47. ………mission est d‘explorer l‘espace à la recherche de nouvelles planètes.

48. Le

49. La

50. Je ne sais pas

51. ……. mausolée se dresse fièrement au milieu du paysage.

52. Le

53. La

54. Je ne sais pas

55. Les joueurs …………. ont marqué le but décisif sont célébrés comme des héros.

56. Qui

57. Que

58. Je ne sais pas

59. Ce soir, on a réussi à décrocher ……….trophée, tu devrais voir les sourires sur nos visages!

60. Le

61. La

62. Je ne sais pas