Nexus of political tensions and cross-border contraband trade between Ethiopia and the Sudan, 1974–1991: evidences from Metema-Humera corridor and its environs

Abstract

Based on a critical examination of untapped provincial archives, contemporary periodical sources, and extensive field interviews conducted with selected local elders in the border areas, this study explores entanglements between regional diplomacy, political tensions hampered by the violence of various armed factions in the Metema-Humera border regions, the dynamics of cross-border contraband trade that involved a diverse array of actors, state failures in enforcing law in the border areas, and enduring impacts on the border regions, 1974–1991. The study also explores the patterns and dynamics of cross-border contraband trade, major actors in the contraband trade, routes, networks, types of contraband items, and the profound impact on borderland communities and state building projects. Cross-border contraband through Metema-Humera has been practiced for longer periods, but the situation was more complicated during the Derg regime (1974–1991) due to entanglements between regional diplomacy, fragile border governance, state failures in enforcing laws in the border areas, armed resistance in the border areas, and the involvement of a diverse array of actors in the contraband trade. The entangled regional diplomacy, mistrust, and suspicion that characterized inter-state relations between Ethiopia and Sudan in the post-1974 period created an enabling environment for cross-border contraband trade, which ultimately contributed to fragile border governance, social and economic crises in Metema-Humera borderland communities. These were exacerbated by the presence of armed movements in the border areas and the involvement of various interest groups.

Keywords:

• Tensions
• mistrust
• cross-border
• contraband trade
• networked actors

Reviewing Editor:

• Samuel Adu-Gyamfi, History and Political Studies, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology College of Arts and Social Science, Kumasi, Ghana

Subjects:

• History
• African History
• By Subject

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Gondar Archive Center (Hereafter, GAC) Folder No. 174–175, File No. ኩ215/445/1985.

2 Informants: Muket Belay, Zewdu Asresie, Sisay Yimer and Wolelaw Teshome.

3 A letter written by Emperor Menelik II to Colonel Harrington, dated on 30 Tähesas 1891 (8 December 1998) in Pawolos Gnogno, 104–105; A letter written by Menelik to Colonel Harrington, dated on 4 Ter 1891 (12 January 1899) in Pawlos Gnogno, 105–106.

4 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 716/567/68/1968.

5 GAC, ሀ-1969 ዓ ም በጠረፍ ወረዳዎች ስላለው የወንበዴዎች እንቅስቃሴ/Folder No. ሀ/5/5, File No. 5/2/69/1969; GAC, Folder No. መ/5/19/2/2, File No. 33/1046/62/1967.

6 Addis Zemen, Newspaper, Hamelé 28/1968; GAC, ኢትዮ-ሱዳን ድንበር ጉዳይ (በሰቲትና መተማ በኩል ስላለው የሥራ አፈፃፀም መመሪያ) Folder No. ረ/7/35; File No. ኢወ/1576/4633/1963); Addis Zemen, Newspaper, Hamelé 2/1968; Addis Zemen, Newspaper, Hamelé 10/1968

7 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 1075/1037/72/1972.

8 GAC, Folder No. ሀ/5, File No.1637/4/13/1970; Addis Zemen Newspaper, Miyazeya 4 &7/1969, Addis Zemen Newspaper, Genbot 5/1969.

9 GAC, 1975 የጎንደር የጭልጋ አውራጃ የ24 ሳዓት ሪፖርት ኢህአፓ ኢዲዩ/ጎንደር አውራጃ ፀጥታ/Folder No. አ. 2.ጎ/File No. 374/55/12/1975; GAC (ኮንትሮባንድ), Folder No. 174–175, File No.ለሰ/ጉዛ 82/1991; GAC, የሱዳን ወታደሮች ድንበር (ወሰን) ጥሶ መግባት/Folder No. አ. 11, File No. 5/369/74/1974.

10 Informants: Issa Bogale, Radiya Hassen and German Abate.

11 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/, Folder No. 174–175, File No. beye qetenaw kilil selalew Hige-wot Ye enisisat nigid yetekahede tenatawi Report, 1975).

12 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/, Folder No. 174–175, Field Survey Report, Gondar 1975).

13 Ibid.

14 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/, Folder No. 174–175, File No. beye qetenaw kilil selalew Hige-wot Ye enisisat nigid yetekahede tenatawi Report, 1975)

15 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/, Folder No. 174–175, Field Survey Report, Gondar 1975).

16 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/, Folder No. 174–175, File No. beye qetenaw kilil selalew Hige-wot Ye enisisat nigid yetekahede tenatawi Report, 1975).

17 Debre Markos University Archive Center (hereafter DMUAC, Folder No. ዞን አስ/3438, No File number and date; .DMUAC, Folder No. ዞን አስ/3438, No File number and date.

18 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174-175, File No. ጎክ47/ጠ/1975.

19 Ibid.

20 Ibid.

21 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 554//መ/መ20/1974; GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174-175, Field Survey Report, Gondar 1975).

22 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 554//መ/መ20/1974; GAC (ኮንትሮባንድ), Folder No. 174-175, Field Survey Report, Gondar 1975), 9; GAC, የሱዳን ወታደሮች ድንበር (ወሰን) ጥሶ መግባት/Folder No. አ. 11, File No. 5/369/74/1974; GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, Field Survey Report, Gondar 1975), 4; GAC, የ1974 ዓ ም የፀጥታ ጉዳይ (የጭልጋ አውራጃ የፀጥታ መፃፃፊያ/, No Folder number, File No. 6033/25/5/1974.

23 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174-175, Field Survey Report, Gondar 1975.

24 Ibid.

25 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174-175, Field Survey Report, Gondar 1975).

26 Ibid, 4; GAC, የ1970 ዓ.ም የጎንደርና ጭልጋ አውራጃዎች የፀጥታ ሪፖርት/Folder No. ሀ/5, File No. 1630. 4/13/1970.

27 Addis Zemene, Tir 9/1981.

28 Addis Zemen, Newspaper, Megabit 2/1972; Addis Zemen, newspaper (Genbot 5/1972, Genbot 16/1972, Genbot 17/1972, Genbot 19/1972).

29 Addis Zemen Newspaper, Ţekemet 13/1973; GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174-175, File No. ጎክ 59/469/1974.

30 Addis Zemen Newspaper, Ţekemet 13/1973; GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174-175, File No. ጎክ 59/469/1974.

31 Addis Zemen, Tir 20/1973; Addis Zemen, Ginbot 1/1972; Addis Zemen, Hamile 7/1973.

32 Addis Zemen, Hamile 7/1973.

33 Addis Zemen, Hamile 7/1973; DMUAC, Folder No. ዞን አስ/3438, File No. ጠረ/74/005/1975.

34 DMUAC, Folder No. ዞን አስ/3438, File No. ውን-ጠ54/69/1975; GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 1075/1037/72/1972.

35 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 86/8/2/1975.

36 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/, Folder No. 174–175, File No. beye qetenaw kilil selalew Hige-wot Ye enisisat nigid yetekahede tenatawi Report, 1975).

37 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 1075/1037/72/1972.

38 Addis Zemen, Newspaper, Megabit 27/1971.

39 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, Field Survey Report, Gondar 1975)

40 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, Field Survey Report, Gondar 1975)

41 Ibid.

42 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. beye qetenaw kilil selalew Hige-wot Ye enisisat nigid yetekahede tenatawi Report, 1975).

43 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 951/210/74/1974.

44 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 427/567/73/1973.

45 GAC (ኮንትሮባንድ), Folder No. 174–175, File No. beye qetenaw kilil selalew Hige-wot Ye enisisat nigid yetekahede tenatawi Report, 1975), 7.

46 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 427/567/73/1973.

47 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 648/808/75/1975; Folder No. 174–175, File No. 685/808/75/1975; Folder No. 174–175, File No. 1863/12/75/1975; GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 278/217/1975.

48 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 8325/15/158/1981.

49 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 648/808/75/1975; Folder No. 174–175, File No. 685/808/75/1975; Folder No. 174–175, File No. 1863/12/75/1975; GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 278/217/1975.

50 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 973/4/114/1983.

51 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. ወን-ጠ56/21/1973; GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 11/ወ/ም1/23/82/1982.

52 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, Field Survey Report, Gondar 1975).

53 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 2/8/113/151/023/1973.

54 GAC, Folder No. 174–175, File No. 2/8/113/151/023/1973.

55 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 11/ወ/ም1/23/82/1982.

56 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 427/567/73/1973.

57 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 2/8/113/151/023/1973.

58 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 675/2256/82/1982.

59 Ibid.

60 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, Report of the Ministry of Agriculture, 1975).

61 Ibid

62 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. beye qetenaw kilil selalew Hige-wot Ye enisisat nigid yetekahede tenatawi Report, 1975), 5; GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 98/1-2/89/1976.

63 GAC (ኮንትሮባንድ), Folder No. 174–175, Field Survey Report, Gondar 1975).

64 GAC, የሱዳን ወታደሮች ድንበር (ወሰን) ጥሶ መግባት/Folder No. አ. 11, File No. 5/369/74/1974.

65 GAC,/Folder No. 174–175, File No. beye qetenaw kilil selalew Hige-wot Ye enisisat nigid yetekahede tenatawi Report, 1975), 5; GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174-175, File No. 98/1-2/89/1976.

66 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, Field Survey Report, Gondar 1975), 5; GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174-175, Field Survey Report, Gondar 1975), 11.

67 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, Field Survey Report, Gondar 1975).

68 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, Field Survey Report, Gondar 1975).

69 Ibid.

70 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, File No. 466/557/72/1972.

71 GAC, ኮንትሮባንድ/Folder No. 174–175, Field Survey Report, Gondar 1975).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Alemayehu Erkihun Engida

Alemayehu Erkihun (PhD) is an Assistant Professor of History at Wollo University, Ethiopia. He did his PhD on Boundary, Borderland, and Frontier Issues between Ethiopia and the Sudan, 1898–1991: From the River River Setit in the North to the Abay (Blue Nile) in the South. His research interest area is on boundary, and borderland dynamics in Africa.