Exploring flaming in the discourse of negative judgment: invoked strategies used by Indonesian netizens in Instagram comments

Abstract

Flaming discourse is becoming more prevalent worldwide, yet research in this domain is still limited. This study, grounded in Appraisal Theory (AT), aims to explore the strategies employed within flaming discourse, specifically focusing on categories such as social esteem and social sanction. The research is centered around analyzing the comments section of an Instagram account owned by an automotive company. Data were collected from comments related to two posts to clarify the quality of the company’s products. The findings show that social esteem is employed to offer critiques of the products, while social sanction is utilized to condemn the actions of the capitalist entity. Across both categories, the most commonly observed strategy is the strategy of affording, which primarily considers the illocutionary context. This is followed by the strategy of flagging, which involves connotation and idiom, and the strategy of provoking, which relies on metaphor. Acknowledging this trend, internet users leverage diverse source domains and readily available lexical elements in their environment. This highlights how the surroundings of Indonesian netizens shape their perspectives during engagement in flaming discourse, integrating multiple meanings. Furthermore, this research suggests further exploration into discussions concerning visual elements in flaming discourse.

Keywords:

• Abusive language
• Appraisal Theory
• cyberbullying
• discourse
• hate speech
• social media

Reviewing Editor:

• Jeroen van de Weijer, College of International Studies, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China

Subjects:

• Asian Studies
• Consumer Psychology
• Group Communication
• Mass Communication
• Cultural Studies
• Language & Linguistics

1. Introduction

The convenience of social media use ideally brings significant benefits to society. However, some netizens fail to utilize social media wisely, resulting in individuals experiencing cyberbullying in various roles – as victims, bullies, or mere observers (Ioannou et al., 2018). In Indonesia, cases of cyberbullying, such as flaming, continue to rise annually. Flaming, characterized by online conflicts through electronic messages containing abusive and vulgar language like cursing, insulting, or mocking, is among the most prevalent forms of cyberbullying (Riany & Utami, 2023). This has become a serious and pressing issue that requires immediate attention (Ibrohim & Budi, 2023). The prevalence of such incidents in Indonesia is not unexpected, considering its status as one of the world’s leading countries in social media usage. With over 170 million active users (Sartini & Adrian, 2023), accounting for 68.9% of the population and ranking fourth globally, the scale of social media engagement amplifies the potential for such occurrences.

Instagram is the predominant social media platform in Indonesia, with more than 83 million users, ranking fourth globally (Saffanah et al., 2023). However, Instagram is inundated with harmful messages that can negatively impact various parties, originating primarily from comments (Karayiğit et al., 2021). Adding to the complexity, the majority of Indonesian netizens are highly active on Instagram, frequently exhibiting negative behavior by posting comments that provoke flaming or hate speech (Syahid et al., 2023). These observations underscore Instagram’s significance as a compelling social media platform for research. The abundance of linguistic data available on this platform provides opportunities for exploration from diverse perspectives (Prastio et al., 2021). A linguistic phenomenon on Instagram that has drawn the attention of Indonesian netizens is a clarification video from Company X addressing concerns about the quality of its vehicles. To maintain research ethics, the researchers refrain from mentioning the account name associated with the comments and instead use ‘X’ as a substitute for any reference to the company. This phenomenon has garnered attention as a trending topic on various social media platforms. Netizens express various criticisms, condemnations and negative reactions concerning the quality of the chassis and other vehicle components (Nalendra et al., 2023; Pratama et al., 2023). This inevitably sparks flaming discourse, employing both inscribed and invoked strategies. Undoubtedly, this phenomenon presents a distinctive opportunity for discussion when analyzed through the framework of functional discourse analysis.

Unfortunately, not all instances of flaming discourse in the comments section of that account can be easily understood due to the diverse language and cultural expressions from various communities (Prastio et al., 2021). Furthermore, Indonesians often resort to using metaphors or connotative language when expressing negativity (Usman & Yusuf, 2020). This inclination is evident in negative judgments that employ specific strategies, thereby obscuring their meaning and ultimately softening their harshness. In uncovering this phenomenon, the current research on Appraisal Theory (AT) aims to bridge research gaps and tackle various issues. AT is a theory with multiple objectives in evaluating a specific aspect (Puspitasari et al., 2021) and is regarded as the most appropriate theory for discussing the evaluation of positive, negative, or both moral values (Kusumawardania & Puspitasari, 2021; Pratiwi et al., 2023).

Such behavior entails specific consequences that can have long-term detrimental effects, impacting both Company X and netizens involved in flaming comments. For example, for the company, such behavior has the potential to tarnish the positive brand image cultivated over time, leading to diminished trust among potential customers and a decline in revenue. Instances like this ultimately pose a threat of bankruptcy, potentially resulting in employee layoffs. Such scenarios undoubtedly give rise to complex issues. The adverse impacts of unemployment in a country can have extensive effects on various aspects of economic, social and political life (Triatmanto & Bawono, 2023). Conversely, netizens may also face legal entanglements due to a lack of optimal self-control in their Instagram usage. As evidence, Ibrohim and Budi (2023) reported that in 2017 alone, the Indonesian National Police, commonly referred to as POLRI, handled 3325 cases of hate speech. This marked a significant increase of 44.99% from the previous year’s cases, which amounted to 1829. This surge underscores the complexity of cyberbullying, including forms like flaming, highlighting the need for in-depth scientific discussion as an effort to mitigate its adverse impacts in the future.

Based on the researchers’ observations, there is a scarcity of studies that use the AT to analyze flaming discourse related to vehicle products on social media. Similarly, there is a lack of research on AT that specifically examines the types of negative judgments conveyed through invoked strategies. Hence, it is important to note that this research can be viewed as a preliminary study, both nationally and globally. Specifically in Indonesia, the sole study on cyberbullying that used AT for data analysis was carried out by Kusumawardania and Puspitasari in 2021. Their research, which examined cyberbullying discourse in written form, differs from the present study in terms of data sources, the specific focus of AT and the methodologies employed. Moreover, other studies within the field of AT in Indonesia typically center around various themes such as promoting positive character values among students (eg Pratiwi et al., 2023; Puspitasari et al., 2021; Sulistiyo et al., 2020), analyzing texts related to disasters (eg Puspita & Pranoto, 2021), exploring the Indonesian national anthem (eg Surjowati, 2021) and delving into environmental discourse (eg Istianah & Suhandano, 2022).

On the international front, AT research covers a wide range of fields. For instance, Gallardo and Ferrari (2010) examined the health sector in Latin America, specifically exploring doctors’ perceptions of health and professionalism. Their study investigates the meaning conveyed and primarily focuses on the strategies employed. In the realm of tourism marketing, Wu (2018) investigated the websites of tourist destinations such as Hangzhou and London. Their study delves into how destinations from diverse cultural backgrounds effectively showcase local attractions to an international audience. On the other hand, in the sphere of higher education, Ho (2020) concentrated specifically on favorable evaluations concerning the commercialization of tertiary education at universities in Hong Kong. Another illustrative study was conducted by Hashemi and Mahdavirad (2023), wherein they examined the preferences of authors within the abstracts of dissertations from 160 PhD students. This analysis encompasses both native and non-native Iranian authors, aiming to assess differences influenced by gender, language and culture. From these descriptions, it is clear that AT holds promise for discussing a range of research contexts. However, its application remains constrained, indicating a need for deeper exploration to enhance the research landscape. Additionally, the utilization of diverse AT theories across different research contexts underscores the importance of examining textual content present in comment sections.

In this research, we aim to achieve two main objectives: (1) to analyze the meaning of invoked strategies in flaming discourse concerning Company X’s products under the category of social esteem, focusing on aspects such as normality, capacity and tenacity and (2) to analyze the meaning of the invoked strategies in flaming discourse concerning Company X’s products under the category of social sanction, focusing on aspects such as veracity and propriety. Through these objectives, this research aims to enhance the understanding of Indonesian societal norms regarding criticism and condemnation, particularly examining how implicit meanings are conveyed on social media platforms.

By thoroughly explaining these two objectives, people can better understand how to be more mindful and prudent when commenting online, which in turn helps reduce cyberbullying. This research indirectly promotes the importance of fostering a culture of peace in online interactions, a value that should be ingrained in everyone for a harmonious life (Pratiwi et al., 2023).

2. Literature review

2.1. Appraisal Theory – the language of evaluation

Over the last few decades, the Systemic Functional Linguistics field has seen numerous advancements, particularly in understanding how language is used in daily interactions and how social constructs are formed through language to convey meaning in socio-cultural settings (Halliday, 2014). Within this framework, AT is notable for its focus on how texts convey evaluations made by their producers regarding specific matters under assessment (Martin & White, 2005). At present, AT is widely regarded as one of the most effective functional theories for examining elements such as emotions, ethics, attitudes and morals in both spoken and written communication (Gallardo & Ferrari, 2010; Pratiwi et al., 2023). In the context of this study, AT is used to analyze written texts that contain consumer evaluations of the quality of automotive products from Company X. This corresponds with AT’s emphasis on investigating interpersonal meaning concerning the management of social interactions within discourse (Ho, 2020; Puspita & Pranoto, 2021; Surjowati, 2021; Wu, 2018). More precisely, it entails assessing the relationship between Company X and its customers. The researchers suggest that social media and content produced by Company X function as a communication platform for engaging with potential and loyal customers, with the ultimate goal of establishing and sustaining social connections. Considering these factors, AT proves to be a robust analytical framework for examining the social relationship between the company and its followers.

In AT, interpersonal meaning is categorized into three semantic domains (Martin & White, 2005). The first domain is attitude, which involves evaluating the language producers’ attitudes, grouped into three focuses: affect, judgment and appreciation. The second domain is engagement, which concerns the origin of the assessed attitude. The third domain is graduation, focusing on the degree of assessment of the evaluated attitude. All three types encompass two assessment poles: positive and negative. The scope of studies within AT is broad. To streamline the evaluation of the discussed phenomena, the researchers concentrate solely on assessing the negative aspect of attitude in the form of negative judgment. This entails negative evaluations of actions performed by individuals or groups, as outlined in Table 1 concerning the categories of negative judgment.

Table 1. Negative judgments by Martin and White (2005).

No	Type of negative judgment	Category	Description of type of negative judgment	Example reference of meaning
1	Social esteem: criticism	Normality	Inappropriateness in what is being assessed	Hapless; unlucky; also-ran, obscure; star-crossed; peculiar; odd; unpredictable; eccentric; erratic; dated; daggy; retrograde
		Capacity	Absence of competence in what is being assessed	Wimpy; mild; weak; crippled; sick, unsound; helpless; childish; immature; slow; stupid; thick; dull; grave; dreary; flaky; neurotic; insane; native; inexpert, foolish; unsuccessful; unproductive; uneducated; illiterate; ignorant; incompetent; unaccomplished
		Tenacity	Absence of mental character in what is being assessed	Gutless; cowardly; timid; rash; impatient; impetuous; reckless; capricious; hasty; weak; distracted, despondent; undependable; unreliable; stubborn; obstinate; willful; unfaithful; disloyal; inconstant
2	Social sanction: condemnation	Veracity	Insincerity in what is being assessed	Lying; deceitful, dishonest; manipulative; devious; deceptive; blabbermouth; blunt
		Propriety	Negative moral evaluation in what is being assessed	Evil; immoral; bad; selfish; greedy; avaricious; rude; discourteous; irreverent; vain; arrogant; cruel; mean; insensitive; corrupt; unfair; unjust

When discussing negative judgments, as outlined in Table 1, language producers typically employ two methods: inscribed and invoked. This study primarily focuses on invoked strategies, as detailed in Table 2. This choice is intentional, given that not everyone readily understands indirectly conveyed language. Indonesian society is known for favoring indirect communication over directness, aiming to maintain etiquette, politeness and charisma. Consequently, individuals often express disappointments using figurative language and metaphors. This practice requires a broad understanding of the world and familiarity with language and cultural contexts to grasp intended meanings. Therefore, this article aims to clarify the significance of negative judgments expressed within the Indonesian community.

Table 2. Invoked strategies by Martin and White (2005).

No	Type of invoked strategy	Description
1	Provoked	Assessment of something expressed through metaphorical language. This indicates that the assessment involves likening it to something that contains negative lexical elements.
2	Invite with the strategy of flagging	Assessment of something based on connotative meanings without making a comparison to something specific. This indicates a tendency towards idiomatic meanings.
3	Invite with the strategy of affording	Assessment of something where the meaning takes into account contextual aspects of the conversation. This indicates that negative assessments utilize illocutionary speech acts and implicature concepts.

2.2. Cyberbullying: flaming discourse by Indonesian netizens on social media

Cyberbullying, akin to traditional harassment, has transcended into a global phenomenon of social aggression facilitated by specific accounts on digital platforms (Rachoene & Oyedemi, 2015). Numerous experts have provided explanations and definitions regarding the concept of cyberbullying. For example, Abaido (2020) characterizes cyberbullying as intentional and aggressive behavior perpetrated by an individual or group targeting victims through electronic devices within a defined timeframe, rendering the victims defenseless. These victims may encompass individuals or specific communities (Handono et al., 2019; Syahid et al., 2023). In essence, cyberbullying refers to any type of disrespectful behavior that takes place on digital platforms. Perpetrators can display this behavior through a range of forms, such as physical, social, relational, or psychological attacks (Ioannou et al., 2018).

One of the most widely acknowledged typologies regarding cyberbullying, notable for its comprehensive coverage, is proposed by Willard (2007). According to his framework, cyberbullying can take on several forms, including flaming, harassment and cyberstalking. Additionally, he categorizes cyberbullying into eight distinct types: flaming, harassment, cyberstalking, denigration, masquerade, outing and trickery, exclusion, impersonation and sexting. In this research context, the emphasis is specifically on cyberbullying, particularly the type known as flaming. Willard (2007) describes flaming in cyberbullying discourse as the act of sending angry, abusive and vulgar messages directed at an individual or group, either privately or within an online community, typically through social media platforms.

Philosophically, Indonesian society follows the Pancasila ideology as a fundamental guiding principle in life. Within Pancasila, the fourth principle pertains to the regulation of freedom of expression, which is also addressed in Article 28 of the 1945 Constitution. This article states that ‘the freedom to associate and assemble, express thoughts orally and in writing, and so forth, shall be regulated by law’. As a result of this provision, Indonesian society benefits from the freedom to express their views, opinions, criticisms and more. Nevertheless, this freedom, especially with the widespread use of social media, gives Indonesian citizens the ability to voice sentiments that may harm others or themselves. This often leads to cases of cyberbullying, such as flaming, where discourse can turn hurtful or damaging. To tackle this issue, the Indonesian government, as a legal entity, has implemented legislation aimed at combating criminal activities in the virtual domain. This is evident in the Republic of Indonesia Law Number 19 of 2016, which amends Law Number 11 of 2008 concerning Information and Electronic Transactions (referred to as the ITE Law). Under this regulation, individuals found guilty of participating in cyberbullying can be sentenced to a maximum of six years in prison and/or fined up to one billion Indonesian Rupiah. Despite the presence of this regulation, certain Indonesian internet users continue to engage in behaviors that constitute cyberbullying. They utilize language with implicit meanings, necessitating linguistic analysis for full comprehension. This phenomenon is readily apparent in the comment sections of personal Instagram accounts or business-related Instagram profiles utilized for marketing purposes by companies across different sectors. These accounts often receive criticism, feedback and other forms of communication from potential customers and clients expressing their dissatisfaction with the quality of the company’s products, as evidenced by the provided data.

3. Method

3.1. Research type

This discourse study utilized a qualitative design with a phenomenological approach. Phenomenology, as a research methodology, involves comprehensive data collection, analysis and interpretation using visual and narrative methods (Gay et al., 2006). The primary aim is to gain profound insights into the subject under investigation (Andajani et al., 2023). In this qualitative phenomenological study, the objective is to gather, categorize and analyze the phenomena of invoked strategies in flaming discourse, focusing on negative judgment categories.

3.2. Data and data sources

The data in this research comprises lexical units such as words, clauses and sentences that convey negative judgments without explicitly stating them, which are known in AT studies as ‘invoked’. These data were sourced from two comment sections on posts made by a transportation company on its Instagram account. To uphold research ethics, the researchers ensured anonymity for both the commenting accounts and the company names. The posts in question are related to the company’s clarification regarding the quality of its marketed products. The first post, as of 25 December 2023, accumulated 16,692 comments. Meanwhile, the second post garnered a total of 61,457 comments, contributing to an overall count of 78,149 comments. It’s important to note that the data for this study did not encompass the entire volume of comments. Instead, the researchers selectively sampled representative comments for analysis, collected from observations made over approximately two months. The decision to use this account as a data source was based on several factors: (1) the widespread usage of the marketed products, particularly in the Asian region, (2) its significance as a trending topic in Indonesian society in recent months, (3) extensive coverage by both print and digital media in Indonesia, highlighting it as a notable informational issue and (4) the substantial Instagram follower count, nearly reaching 2 million followers.

The study did not include all the comments received. Instead, the researchers chose a representative sample for analysis. These comments were collected over a period of around two months. Suri (2011) suggests that research utilizing this data collection method may lose effectiveness if data are discarded randomly. Therefore, researchers should establish specific criteria for selecting sample data to improve the quality and credibility of their research. In this study, the criteria for evaluating data suitability for presentation are as follows: (1) consistency with research objectives, (2) portrayal of the phenomenon, with lexical elements appearing more than 10 times considered appropriate for discussion in subsequent stages and (3) lexical elements reflecting the most common flaming discourse selected as the most representative for presentation.

During the validation of the collected data, the researchers conducted a Focus Group Discussion to ensure the reliability and validity of the findings. In discourse analysis, the reliability and validity interpretation can be improved by employing shared rules, reference frameworks, or common beliefs to analyze the data (Jaipal-Jamani, 2014). Additionally, Jaipal-Jamani emphasized the importance of social knowledge in validating interpretations of analyzed text. In line with this, the researchers, being Indonesians, possess a deep understanding of the cultural context of society. This familiarity provides a solid foundation for the interpretations presented in this study.

3.3. Data analysis

The researchers utilized Creswell’s (2014) thematic analysis approach, which consists of five analysis steps. Firstly, in the organization of raw data, data were extracted from the comments section on Instagram, aiming to facilitate the identification of relevant data for the research objectives. Secondly, in preparing the data for analysis, each raw data point was identified by aligning it with the AT indicators proposed by Martin and White (2005), as detailed in Tables 1 and 2. Thirdly, multiple readings of the data were conducted to ensure accuracy. During this step, the researchers reviewed the identification results, assessing their alignment with the theory employed. Fourthly, the identified data results were classified by the researchers, as demonstrated in Tables 3 and 4. Fifthly, the researchers conducted data interpretation and drew conclusions, aligning with emerging themes and objectives. The findings were connected with various theories, opinions and prior research results within the context of cyberbullying, particularly flaming, as well as previously published studies on AT.

Table 3. Invoked strategies in negative social esteem.

Type	No	Delivery strategy	Example comment from Indonesian netizens	English equivalent	Source domain	The meaning of negative judgment
Negative Normality (how not special?)	1	Flagged	Saham X turun terus tuh, mau sampe gulung tikar?	Stock X keeps going down, is it rolling up the mat?	Household appliances	Declining
	2	Afforded	X saya baru 3 bulan lebih, belum pernah kena hujan, sudah timbul benih-benih emas	My X is just over 3 months old, never been exposed to rain, and golden seeds have already appeared]	Jewelry	Unpredictable
	3	Afforded	Gigi kuning juga silikat bukan jigong	Yellow teeth are also silica, not dental plaque	Body parts	Odd
	4	Afforded	Baru ngambek X aku ini, baru jalan 9 bulan	I just threw a tantrum X; I've only been around for 9 months	Human traits	Unpredictable
	5	Afforded	X Bapak tertawa melihat ini	X Father laughs seeing this	Actions	Odd
	6	Afforded	Harga secondnya turun banyak enggak nih?	Has the second-hand price dropped significantly?	Rhetorical questions	Worsening
	7	Afforded	Maaf, ni mau tanya, jual motor atau sepeda?	Sorry, may I ask, are you selling a motorcycle or a bicycle?	Rhetorical questions	Odd
Negative Capacity (how incapable?)	8	Provoked	Malah ngene koyok jembut mrotoli	It's even worse, like easily falling pubic hair	Sexual organs	Fragile
	9	Provoked	Sales bobrok dan mekanik magang, sekarang produknya cak sampah	Shady sales and apprentice mechanics, now the products are like trash	Worthless objects	Useless/ Of poor quality
	10	Provoked	Rangka lo pas diketuk kayak seng kamar mandi wkwkwkw	When your frame is knocked, it sounds like a bathroom zinc roofing hahaha	Building materials	Unpredictable
	11	Provoked	Lebih tebal kaleng kongguan	Kongguan cans are thicker	Food packaging container	Weak
	12	Provoked	Eh kaleng koyok kaleng serden	Hey, it looks like cans of sardines	Food packaging container	Weak
	13	Flagged	Makanya nyari karyawan jangan dari orang dalam	So, when looking for employees, do not hire insiders	Community	Foolish
	14	Flagged	Tulang lunak, tulang lunak	Soft bones, soft bones	Body organs	Weak
	15	Flagged	Motor crispynya kakak	A crispy motorcycle, Brother/Sister	Food	Powerless
	16	Flagging	Rangka renyah	A crispy frame	Food	Powerless
	17	Flagged	Para begal motor kena imbasnya, penadah enggak mau terima yg rangka keripik wkwkwk	Motorcycle thieves are feeling the impact; the receivers don't want the frame of crisps, hahaha	Food	Weak
	18	Afforded	Osteoporosis lagi ngeksis	Osteoporosis is trending	Diseases	Slow
	19	Afforded	Dikasih susu Anlene tuh X biar tulangnya kuat	Give X Anlene milk, to make his/her bones strong	Beverage	Weak
	20	Afforded	SIAP2 Dealer X DI INDONESIA JADI KEDAI MIXUE	GET READY, X Dealer IN INDONESIA WILL BECOME MIXUE SHOPS	Beverage	Gloomy
	21	Afforded	Supra aja masih getar sampai sekarang	Even the Supra still vibrates until now	Movement	Unreasonable
	22	Afforded	Saya pakai X, apakah saya akan terlipat?	I'm using X, will I be folded?	Rhetorical questions	Unreasonable
	23	Afforded	Rangka X sama baja ringan kuat mana guys? Serius nanya	Between the X frame and lightweight steel, which one is stronger, guys? Seriously asking	Rhetorical questions	Powerless
Negative Tenacity (how unreliable?)	24	Flagged	Lama-lama tenggelam kebawa arus, bisa-bisa terdengar brand baru. Coba dah tinggal tunggu waktu	Over time, it will be gradually swept away by the current, a new brand could emerge. Just wait and see	Natural events	Inconsistent
	25	Flagged	Semua ada masanya, bahkan raksasa sekalipun…tinggal tunggu waktu aja	Everything has its time, even giants… just wait for the time	Forms	Careless
	26	Afforded	Bersiaplah, produk X ini akan seperti Nokia	Get ready, this X product will be like Nokia	Brand	Non-adaptive
	27	Afforded	Jasa ketok magic nya kakak	The magic touch service, Sister/Brother	Mystical things	Careless

Notes: Data in Indonesian are in italic and flaming discourse markers are in bold.

Table 4. Invoked strategies in negative social sanction.

Sub-type	No	Delivery strategy	Example comment from Indonesian netizens	English equivalent	Source domain	The meaning of negative judgment
Negative Veracity (how dishonest?)	1	Provoked	Omong koyo kemu, pendongeng handal	Speaking like gargling, a skilled storyteller	Occupation	Deceiver
	2	Provoked	Udahlah kaya bajai	Enough, like an auto-rickshaw	Transportation	Slick
	3	Flagged	Antara membela diri atau mencari kambing hitam	Between defending oneself or finding a scapegoat	Animal	Manipulative
	4	Flagged	Senjata makan tuan	A weapon that hurts the wielder	Sharp object	Manipulative
	5	Afforded	Sedia payung sebelum hujan, SEDIA TOPENG SEBELUM MALU	Prepare an umbrella before the rain, WEAR A MASK BEFORE SHAME	Security tool	Deceiver
	6	Afforded	STAND UP COMEDY	STAND UP COMEDY	Performing arts	Deceiver
	7	Afforded	SEBUT SAJA MAWAR	JUST CALL THE PERSON A ROSE	Flower	Deceiver
Negative Propriety (how immoral?)	8	Provoked	Penjelasannya seperti pejabat di negara Konoha, bukannya meminta maaf atau apalah… ini malah mencari pembenaran	The explanation is like officials in the Konoha nation, instead of apologizing or anything… it's seeking justification	Fantasy country	Bad or unclear
	9	Provoked	Sekelas perusahaan Flagship Internasional klarifikasinya kayak admin slot	As an international company, Flagship's clarification is comparable to that of slot administrators	Occupation	Unlawful
	10	Flagged	Adu otot kok sama konsumen	Why flex muscles against the consumers?	Body part	Selfish
	11	Afforded	Sekedar minta maaf aja tidak ada? Malah lawak	Is a simple apology too much to ask? Instead, it's a joke	Rhetorical question	Arrogant
	12	Afforded	Masuk ATM saja dilarang pake masker, topi, kacamata hitam… Dan X memilih “menemui” konsumennya dengan penutup muka	Even entering an ATM, you can't wear a mask, hat, or sunglasses… And X chooses to 'meet' its consumers with a face cover	Regulation	Arrogant

Notes: Data in Indonesian are in italic and flaming discourse markers are in bold.

4. Results

4.1. Invoked strategies in flaming discourse in the form of social esteem

The study presents 27 representative examples demonstrating how Indonesian society employs flaming discourse under the category of negative judgment; it explores the strategies employed, which utilize diverse lexical references. These instances fall into three main categories. Firstly, negative normality is conveyed through the strategies of flagging and affording. Secondly, negative capability is expressed through the strategies of provoking, flagging and affording. Lastly, negative tenacity is communicated through the strategies of flagging and affording. For further details, refer to Table 3 for a breakdown of these examples.

Firstly, let us break down the concept of ‘negative normality’. In Example 1, the phrase ‘gulung tikar’ (rolling up the mat) serves as an idiom, which literally refers to rolling up a carpet or similar mat. However, in Indonesian culture, this expression is commonly used to evaluate a business that is on the brink of significant losses or bankruptcy. Consequently, it reflects public perception regarding the unfavorable state of the evaluated entity. In this specific instance, netizens believe that the actions of the company pose self-destructive risks, indirectly indicating a perceived decline in the company’s circumstances.

Examples 2 to 7 exemplify negative judgments expressed through the concept of negative normality using the strategy of affording. In Example 2, a netizen expresses surprise at his/her vehicle’s rusting in specific areas despite its recent purchase, which highlights its relative newness. This issue has been a topic of community discussion for some time. The implied reference to ‘benih-benih emas [golden seeds]’ suggests rust accompanied by yellowish hues around the frame. A similar sentiment is echoed in Example 3, with references to ‘gigi kuning [yellow teeth]’ and ‘Jigong [dental plaque]’, corroborating the shared experiences related to rust mentioned by a previous commenter. Meanwhile, another instance of negative normality is illustrated in Example 4 with the term ‘ngambek [threw a tantrum]’, typically associated with childish behavior characterized by feelings of being upset, brokenhearted, grimacing, hopeless and disappointed. Interestingly, this word is not commonly used in Indonesia to describe vehicle-related incidents; instead, the more familiar term ‘mogok [breakdown]’ is preferred. Thus, the context suggests that netizens perceive their vehicle’s behavior as abnormal, particularly for a new vehicle not even a year into ownership. Through Examples 2, 3 and 4, there is a discernible pattern of evaluating abnormality marked by various issues encountered with the vehicles they own.

In Example 5, the phrase ‘X Bapak tertawa melihat ini [X Father laughs seeing this]’ suggests a connotative meaning of belittlement associated with the word ‘tertawa [laughs]’. In Indonesia, vehicles bearing brand X from the company under scrutiny in this discourse are renowned for their excellent quality. These vehicles are frequently utilized by the community for transporting goods, navigating through gardens and traversing rugged terrain, often without encountering any issues despite their advanced age. Notably, these vehicles are predominantly driven by older gentlemen. In this instance, the netizen posting the comment appears to perceive that the quality of the company’s recently manufactured vehicles does not meet the expected standard and is inferior to the quality of its past productions. Examples 6 and 7 demonstrate the utilization of rhetorical questions by netizens within the same strategy. In Example 6, the question ‘harga secondnya turun banyak enggak nih? [Has the second-hand price dropped significantly?]’ serves as a critique regarding issues related to the declining quality of vehicles produced by Company X, indirectly impacting the resale value of the vehicle. On the other hand, Example 7 presents the question ‘Maaf ni mau tanya, jual motor atau sepeda? [Sorry, may I ask, are you selling a motorcycle or a bicycle?]’ as a rhetorical question by providing answer choices.

In the second category of strategies used to convey negative social judgments, known as negative capacity, netizens express their criticisms using three different methods. The first method is through provocation, wherein metaphors are employed. For instance, in Example 8, a metaphor involving a body part is used, which is ‘jemput mrotoli’, which literally means pubic hair that easily falls out. Here, the metaphor is utilized to illustrate the vulnerability of specific vehicle parts that are prone to detachment. Put simply, netizens evaluate that vehicles produced by Company X are exceptionally fragile and unreliable, posing risks to the safety of riders. Likewise, in Example 9, ‘cak sampah’, literally meaning something akin to trash, suggests something lacking and devoid of value. Consequently, netizens also assess that the product of Company X is not favored by the public because it is perceived as lacking in value.

Meanwhile, the following two comments express concerns regarding the unconventional raw materials used in constructing the vehicle frame. In Example 10, the phrase ‘kayak seng kamar mandi wkwkwkw [like a bathroom zinc roofing hahahaha]’ compares the material to zinc used for bathroom roofing. In Indonesia, it is common for households, particularly those with lower to middle-class economic status, to use zinc as a material for bathroom walls. Moreover, the addition of ‘wkwkwk [hahahaha]’ signifies laughter commonly expressed by Indonesians, especially in digital communication. In this case, the netizen posting the comment is ridiculing the quality of the vehicle frame, portraying it as extremely fragile and unreliable. A similar sentiment is echoed in Example 11, ‘kaleng Kongguan [Kongguan cans]’, which refers to the thin and easily flattened cans used by a famous biscuit product in Indonesia for packaging their food. The final example in this category is depicted in Example 12, ‘kaleng sarden [cans of sardines]’. Sardines are fish commonly served with chili or tomato sauce, belonging to various species of the Clupeidae family. Meanwhile, ‘kaleng [cans]’ refers to the containers used for packaging fast food, typically with a thickness not exceeding 2 cm. Therefore, netizens perceive that the quality of the vehicle frame marketed by the company is unreliable, being regarded no better than the objects it is compared to.

Moreover, negative judgments of the capacity type are conveyed using the strategy of flagging. In Example 13, the phrase ‘orang dalam [insiders]’ literally refers to individuals with connections within a company or community, who can facilitate acceptance for a job or membership. In this context, the applicant is also perceived as lacking sufficient capacity. This advantage is often acquired through various relationships such as friendships, family ties, acquaintanceships, or business connections. Consequently, netizens evaluate that the declining product quality stems from dishonest practices in the employee recruitment process. Essentially, they believe that the issues arise from employees lacking competence in their work.

Meanwhile, Examples 14, 15, 16 and 17 convey a connotative meaning related to assessing the competence of the marketed products, particularly in terms of food. In Example 14, the phrase ‘tulang lunak [soft bones]’ suggests bones that are pliable, easily breakable, weak and so on. In Example 15, the term ‘crispy’ and in Example 16, ‘renyah [crispy]’ imply dishes with a high level of crispiness. Similarly, the term ‘keripik [crisps]’ in Example 17 refers to a snack commonly consumed in Indonesia, mainly made from cassava and known for its high crispiness. In these three examples, the commenters utilize these phrases to remark on the vehicle frame, indicating that it frequently experiences damage, breakage and fractures in specific areas, rendering it unsuitable for reliable daily use as a vehicle.

In Examples 18 and 19, there is an evaluation regarding the product’s condition being labeled as weak, conveyed through references to aging. This falls under the negative capacity type and is expressed through the affording strategy. The term ‘osteoporosis’ literally signifies the condition of bones becoming porous and brittle, commonly associated with individuals in the elderly category. Meanwhile, in Example 19, ‘Anlene’ is a brand of milk containing a comprehensive range of nutrients to maintain the health and strength of bones, joints and muscles, typically consumed by the Indonesian community. Generally, this milk is consumed by individuals aged 50 and above. Based on this, netizens infer that products from X lack competence because they are perceived as weak and sluggish.

Example 20 illustrates the concept of negative capacity using a strategy commonly employed in assessment processes. It draws a parallel with the practices of a well-known ice cream company, ‘Kedai Mixue’, based in Zhengzhou and Henan, China. In Indonesia, when Kedai Mixue plans to open new branches, it strategically selects recommended locations and lands. Based on this observation, netizens predict that Kedai Mixue will purchase land owned by Company X. This prediction implies that Company X may face financial difficulties and potentially file for bankruptcy.

In Example 21, the term ‘getar [vibrates]’ is used to describe repeated movements or vibrations. However, netizens actually compare a newly released motorcycle with its predecessor, renowned for its excellent quality and reliability across different terrains. The vibrations experienced in Mr. X’s motorcycle, as highlighted by the commenter, symbolize the criticisms surrounding the latest products from the company distributed in Indonesia. Essentially, there is widespread skepticism regarding the quality of these products. Thus, netizens conclude that the current production of motorcycles lacks competence and exhibits inferior quality compared to the previous models. This conclusion is further supported by subsequent examples, which are framed as rhetorical questions in Examples 22 and 23.

The phrase ‘Apakah saya akan terlipat? [will I be folded?]’ with the term ‘terlipat [folded]’ in Example 22, refers to something being broken into two or split into two parts in Indonesian language. In the context of the comment, a netizen first mentions that he/she is using product X. This implies his/her concern that the vehicle might be damaged or broken in the frame, leading to the worry expressed in the phrase. In Example 23, a netizen compares vehicles produced by X with lightweight steel, a commonly used material in Indonesia for construction. Lightweight steel is renowned for its strength and rust resistance despite its light weight. However, the frame of X has stirred controversy due to frequent cases of rusting, leading to numerous complaints and social media videos showing vehicles that seem to be ‘terlipat [folded]’ or broken. Consequently, based on these two examples, it can be deduced that netizens have evaluated the quality of product X as lacking in adequacy.

In the third category of invoked strategies to portray negative social esteem, referred to as negative tenacity, examples are utilized to convey assessments or predictions about Company X’s future experiences. Example 24, ‘tenggelam ke bawa arus [swept away by the current]’, literally describes something sinking into a river or sea. However, in this context, it predicts that Company X will encounter difficulties, uncertainties and misery that could potentially lead to bankruptcy. This prediction is further supported by another netizen’s comment in Example 25, ‘Semua ada masanya, bahkan raksasa sekalipun [Everything has its time, even giants]’. Literally, ‘raksasa [giants]’ implies something of immense size or stature. However, in this context, bolstered by the phrase ‘semua ada masanya [everything has its time]’, it refers to the company that holds significant prominence in a specific industry. The netizen’s comment suggests that Company X needs to proceed with caution to maintain stability and avoid falling out of favor with its consumers by ensuring the quality of its products.

Building on the preceding information, conveyed through the strategy of affording, Example 26, ‘akan seperti Nokia [will be like Nokia]’, alludes to Nokia, a mobile phone brand extensively popular among Indonesians from 2000 to 2012. Nokia’s decline stemmed from Indonesian consumers’ dissatisfaction with its performance and the perceived lack of advantages compared to newer brands. At present, Nokia users are scarce to find. Therefore, the netizen’s comment indirectly implies that the company’s inconsistent, careless and non-adaptive actions may similarly result in adverse outcomes.

In Example 27, the comment ‘ketok magic [magic touch]’ proposes an alternative solution from one netizen to tackle the contentious issue. The term ‘ketok magic [magic touch]’ typically evokes associations with supernatural or mystical practices. This perception arises from the exceptionally swift repair process, with mechanics keeping the procedures secretive. Undoubtedly, this comment indirectly suggests that the products offered by Company X are regarded as abnormal, lacking competence and unreliable.

4.2. Invoked strategies in flaming discourse in the form of social sanction

A total of 12 representative examples concerning negative social sanction are provided, categorized into two types: negative veracity and propriety. These types are demonstrated through three strategies: provoking, flagging and affording. A comprehensive summary of this information is presented in Table 4.

Firstly, negative veracity using the strategy of provoking is illustrated in Examples 1 and 2. In Example 1, the term ‘pendongeng handal’ (skilled storyteller) used within the Indonesian community suggests a tendency to exaggerate or fabricate stories without reliable evidence. Essentially, it denotes someone proficient in concocting narratives. In this context, the commenter’s metaphor suggests that the explanatory video lacks trustworthiness regarding the accuracy of information and perspectives on the criticized aspects of the marketed products’ quality. This presumption is further supported by the comment provided in Example 2, where someone is compared to a ‘bajai’ (an auto-rickshaw). In Indonesia, a bajai is known for its agility and effectiveness in navigating crowded streets. The metaphor is employed to characterize individuals who are adept at finding excuses to conceal their errors. Moreover, it also denotes individuals who are skilled at obfuscating the truth and deflecting allegations directed towards them.

Furthermore, the flaming discourse categorized under the negative veracity emerges through the strategy of flagging. In Example 3, the term ‘kambing hitam’ (scapegoat) is employed to describe someone unfairly burdened with blame for a mistake they did not make. Essentially, they are made a scapegoat for accusations. In essence, netizens suggest that the company’s manipulation has led to financial and safety repercussions, indicating a perceived unwillingness on the company’s part to take responsibility for their errors. This is underscored by Example 4, ‘senjata makan tuan’ (a weapon that hurts the wielder), which depicts actions intended to cause harm to someone but ultimately end up backfiring or harming the instigator themselves. In this context, the errors contributing to the decline in the quality of the marketed products ultimately result in reduced sales.

The forthcoming examples are elucidated through the strategy of affording, as seen in Examples 5, 6 and 7, which characterize the company’s actions as deceitful towards the Indonesian populace. For instance, the expression ‘sedia payung sebelum hujan’ (prepare an umbrella before the rain), as shown in Example 5, is a common Indonesian saying advising individuals, entities, or communities to anticipate adversity before it occurs. In this context, it directly correlates with the ongoing discourse surrounding the company’s product quality debate. The commenter suggests that the company failed to foresee the potential harm its innovative actions could inflict upon itself. This notion is further emphasized by the phrase ‘SEDIA TOPENG SEBELUM MALU’ (WEAR A MASK BEFORE SHAME), highlighting not only the misguided nature of the company’s actions but also its peculiar and unconventional approach.

The netizens’ evaluation of the company continues with the comment ‘STAND UP COMEDY’ in Example 6. This term refers to the comedic performance genre where individuals often humorously address social observations, analyzing and discussing them through clever wordplay. In Example 7, the statement ‘SEBUT SAJA MAWAR’ (JUST CALL THE PERSON A ROSE) is a common Indonesian expression used to describe someone whose identity is unknown but who frequently engages in harmful actions towards others. In this context, the name ‘Mawar’ is humorously employed. In the company’s clarification video, the individual remains anonymous, covering his face with a mask and wearing sunglasses. Consequently, netizens behind the negative comment appears to characterize the company’s representative as deceitful, manipulative, cunning, lawless and possessing various other negative personality traits.

The second type of invoked strategies in negative social sanction is negative propriety. Flaming discourse related to negative propriety involves labeling individuals’ behavior as if they held certain positions, utilizing the strategy of provoking, as seen in Examples 8 and 9. For instance, the statement ‘seperti pejabat di negara Konoha’ (like officials in the Konoha nation) in Example 8 employs a dehumanizing metaphor. Konoha is a fictional location in the anime series Naruto Shippuden, known for its seven leaders. In the Indonesian context, it’s used humorously or analogously to comment on events in Indonesia. This phrase is commonly used by the public as a means to critique government policies perceived as not serving the people’s interests. It is also used to scrutinize policies that appear beneficial but, in reality, work against the community. In light of this, the commenter is clearly assessing the company’s response, finding it lacking in addressing the ongoing issues. Therefore, it shows that netizens likely seek a sincere apology from the company rather than a video that appears more concerned with self-defense.

Example 9 presents another case of dehumanization, akin to the prior discovery, as described in the phrase ‘kayak admin slot’ (like slot administrators). Slot administrators are responsible for managing and operating digital platforms related to online gambling. In essence, they serve as officers tasked with ensuring the smooth functioning of the site, including maintaining technical aspects, resolving issues, addressing user queries, ensuring the safety and privacy of gamblers and facilitating their success in games.

Furthermore, negative propriety manifests through the strategy of flagging. Example 10 introduces the phrase ‘adu otot’ (flexing muscles), which denotes prioritizing power over competence, sincerity and common sense. In this instance, the netizen employs the phrase to evaluate a company perceived to exhibit selfish characteristics. This perception arises from the company’s release of a clarification video, which is seen as defensive and failing to acknowledge responsibility for the losses suffered by its customers. Essentially, the intent behind this comment is to prompt the company to admit its errors, apologize and propose mutually beneficial solutions for both parties.

Lastly, two instances of assessments regarding the company’s perceived arrogance are illustrated through the strategy of affording. Example 11 presents a rhetorical question: ‘sekedar minta maaf aja tidak ada? [Is a simple apology too much to ask?]’. Culturally, this rhetorical question essentially functions as a demand, urging the company to apologize to its customers for the issues at hand. However, the company’s response was to provide clarification, downplaying the severity of the engine frame issue and dismissing it as a common occurrence in the automotive world. This sentiment is further emphasized by the inclusion of the word ‘lawak [a joke]’ at the end of the post.

Moreover, Example 12 illustrates an explanation related to regulations in Indonesia, possibly extending to an international scale: ‘Masuk ATM saja dilarang pake masker, topi, kacamata hitam [Even entering an ATM, you can’t wear a mask, hat, or sunglasses]’. The company justifies its use of these attributes in its clarification video where it covers approximately 90% of the person’s face in the video. As a result, netizens perceive the company’s actions as a breach of societal norms and applicable regulations. This suspicion is heightened by the netizen’s use of the word ‘menemui’ (meet), enclosed in quotation marks. In spoken Indonesian, people often say ‘dalam tanda kutip’ (in quotation marks) to stress something deemed significant. In this context, it indirectly serves as an affirmation in conveying something with an implied meaning, reminding the company that when crafting a clarification video, it should take into account prevailing cultural norms to prevent being perceived as arrogant.

5. Discussion

The research findings have uncovered the invoked strategies used by Indonesians to engage in flaming discourse on social media while evaluating the quality of products being marketed and assessing the behavior of the company. The lexicon employed in these communication strategies is closely tied to everyday life experiences. In this regard, Usman and Yusuf (2020) and Andajani et al. (2023) have underscored that the source domain employed to convey language with indirect meaning, such as through metaphors, idioms and connotative words, is derived from observations of surrounding events. Essentially, these observations of phenomena in the surroundings play a significant role in shaping thoughts and creating terms to negatively assess someone or something.

The overall findings suggest that Indonesian society continues to value etiquette and courtesy, as indicated by the use of language with indirect meanings, which reflects a consideration for politeness (Prastio et al., 2021). This is evident through the prevalence of language with implicit meanings conveyed via metaphors, connotations and contextual understanding when condemning and criticizing, despite it being perceived as detrimental to them. To some extent, these findings align with previous research on the politeness of Indonesian society in communication culture when expressing condemnation and criticism, as evidenced by various micro-linguistic elements (Prastio et al., 2020, 2021; Rahmawanto & Rahyono, 2019). In essence, within this context, Indonesian netizens adopt a linguistic style that veils taboo, coarse and inappropriate words, thereby sidestepping potential violations of the Information and Electronic Transaction (ITE) Law. Historically, the use of indirect language, including metaphors, connotations, idioms, euphemisms and illocution, is deeply intertwined with Indonesia’s colonial history. During that period, the native population faced pressure from colonial authorities, resulting in restrictions on expressing opinions and ideas openly. Consequently, the only viable means of communication was to employ language devoid of direct meaning. This historical event has shaped a communication habit in society that persists even in the digital age.

The flaming discourse produced by Indonesian netizens can be further elucidated by scrutinizing the micro-linguistic elements employed. In this context, the orthographic aspect, particularly within the realms of negative social esteem and negative social sanction, is of significance. Research findings by Heath (2018), which investigate flaming discourse on Twitter, underscore that the utilization of caps lock signifies an array of negative emotions, thereby serving to accentuate the interpersonal meaning of the message. However, it is crucial to consider the discourse context, as emphasized by Zappavigna (2012). In the context of this research, netizens employ caps lock when expressing dissatisfaction with the quality of products in circulation. Therefore, the data presented in this study serve as a clear indicator of negative judgments.

Firstly, the strategy of provoking in expressing flaming discourse within the social esteem category is primarily used to evaluate the effectiveness of the marketed products. Metaphors drawn from various source domains such as sexual organs, worthless objects, building materials and food packaging are commonly employed. In Indonesia, the community most frequently utilizes metaphors related to sexual organs and worthless objects when addressing negative aspects. This finding aligns with prior research on sexuality metaphors (eg Nurnaningsih, 2018) and metaphors used in documentaries discussing plastic waste (Vermenych, 2021), further emphasizing their significance. In the example provided, the phrase ‘jembut mrotoli [easily falling pubic hair]’ associates pubic hair with waste, conveying a sense of worthlessness. These lexical elements are closely tied to the community’s tendency to use vulgar or abusive language when expressing disappointment, irritation, anger and similar emotions. In this context, such expressions express negative sentiments toward items perceived as fragile and useless. Similar situations arise with metaphors utilizing ‘kaleng [cans]’, a common food packaging container in Indonesia and ‘seng [zinc]’, often used as roofing material by lower-income communities to cut down on bathroom construction costs. Hence, Indonesians utilize these metaphors to describe something that may seem impressive on the surface but lacks substance within.

In contrast, the strategy of provoking employed to impose social sanctions on individuals associated with Company X entails netizens condemning dishonest actions (veracity) by drawing upon metaphors related to occupation and transportation. When assessing the absence of moral integrity, the source domains encompass country and occupation. These findings support Valtorta et al.’s (2019) research, which explores the domain of ‘dirty jobs’ as a source of dehumanization in evaluating the moral and social conduct of workers. In Indonesia, the role of ‘admin slot [slot administrators]’ is widely regarded as lacking in integrity. Consequently, engaging in such activities is vehemently discouraged and criticized, largely due to prevailing cultural norms, especially among those who adhere to Islam. This occupation is seen as devoid of dignity, frowned upon, perceived as breaking the law and associated with greed. Therefore, the underlying meaning of these criticisms is closely tied to moral judgments and concerns about dishonesty in the described aspects.

In the realm of political advertising in Greece, Piata (2016) finds that metaphors and humor are strategically employed to serve particular rhetorical aims. These tools are framed by users in an evaluative manner, aimed at eliciting laughter at the expense of their targets. In a similar situation, Indonesian netizens utilize metaphors and humor as tools for critiquing companies. For instance, the metaphor ‘seperti pejabat di negara Konoha [like officials in the Konoha nation]’, produced by Indonesian netizens, highlights the frequent arbitrary decision-making by leaders. This metaphor is often interpreted humorously but serves as a form of criticism intended to prompt improvement. In another notable discovery within this category, there is a focus on the term ‘bajai’ (auto-rickshaw), a prevalent mode of transportation in Indonesian society. This term is employed by the community to gauge an individual’s honesty and morality, drawing a comparison between these attributes and the nimbleness and ingenuity needed to navigate crowded streets. Within this context, netizens parallel the company’s skill in finding excuses with the agility associated with maneuvering through bustling thoroughfares.

Secondly, within the strategies of flagging and affording, the utilization of the entire flaming discourse falls under the categories of social esteem and social sanction. When employing flaming discourse to convey negative social esteem, netizens primarily draw upon the source domain related to food, specifically ‘kerupuk’ (crackers), to assess capacity. This aspect introduces a unique element to the research. In Indonesian culture, ‘kerupuk’ are closely intertwined with consumption habits, often viewed as snacks or accompaniments to main meals. For some, crackers are perceived as low-quality, lightweight and delicate due to their crispy texture, susceptibility to damage, ease of breakage and fragility. Based on the findings, it suggests that Indonesian netizens often create metaphors by drawing parallels between events that share characteristics with marketed products known for being easily breakable and prone to damage. Additionally, when evaluating concepts like negative normality and negative tenacity, similar meanings emerge despite the use of different connotations. For instance, ‘gulung tikar’ (rolling up the mat) and ‘tenggelam ke bawa arus’ (swept away by the current) both signify bankruptcy, albeit expressed through distinct metaphors.

In the utilization of the strategy of flagging within the social sanction category, a source domain is employed, drawing connotations from various categories including animals, sharp objects and body organs. Specifically, the chosen animal is ‘kambing hitam’ (a scapegoat), symbolizing something deemed negative. In Acehnese culture, as researched by Usman and Yusuf (2020), goats are utilized to assess human behavior associated with negative traits, such as disloyalty to a partner and a lack of self-preservation skills. Similarly, Poluzhyn’s (2020) research indicates that the black goat serves as an idiom referring to someone deemed worthless or ostracized from society. These findings collectively emphasize the prevalent use of goats to depict negative aspects associated with human behavior. Moreover, in Indonesian culture, the color black often carries connotations of darkness, mystery and undesirable attributes. This adds a literal interpretation to the term ‘kambing hitam’ (a scapegoat), which, within the scope of this research, signifies the evaluation of truthfulness used to critique individuals who are deemed dishonest and manipulative.

In Indonesian culture, the idiom ‘senjata makan tuan’ (a weapon that hurts the wielder), derived from the source domain of sharp objects, is frequently employed to convey the idea that actions or policies pursued for short-term gains can result in significant negative consequences in the long term. This expression encapsulates the irony or paradox where individuals or groups create something that ultimately poses a threat or loss to themselves. Within the context of this research, netizens utilize this phrase to evaluate the actions of Company X, implying that these actions ultimately harm the company itself. However, according to research conducted by Wu (2018), which analyzed tourism websites using Argumentation Theory (AT), it is revealed that the strategic use of linguistic resources plays a crucial role and serves as an effective measure in attracting visitors. Consequently, in this scenario, Company X could capitalize on this insight by developing explanatory videos for its products to address any potential criticisms from netizens and mitigate their impact.

Thirdly, within the realm of flaming discourse, the strategy of affording emerges as the most prevalent means of expressing assessments, especially within the domains of social esteem and social sanction. This strategy asserts its dominance by being consistently present across all categories. Research from Argentina conducted by Gallardo and Ferrari (2010) suggests that affective and judgmental discourse carries nuanced meanings that can only be fully comprehended by taking into account the conversational context and broader worldly knowledge. Indonesian netizens predominantly rely on the strategy of affording over other types as a deliberate effort to accommodate cultural differences, foster relationships and convey information effectively. The goal is to ensure that netizens from various linguistic and cultural backgrounds can understand the flaming discourse, ultimately reducing the likelihood of language-based misunderstandings.

The use of rhetorical questions, particularly in condemning and criticizing contexts, is predominantly rooted in the source domain. This pattern is consistent across all negative judgments. This discovery aligns with earlier studies on marketing discourse in Indonesia, indicating that indirect commands can be effectively conveyed through different question types to assert authority and maintain politeness (Prastio et al., 2021). This method is frequently utilized when expressing skepticism regarding the quality of products being offered (Martutik et al., 2023), and it is also commonly employed to deliver criticism and feedback on perceived drawbacks (Prastio et al., 2021). Consequently, it is unsurprising that rhetorical questions are predominantly employed to fulfill various communicative functions associated with criticizing and condemning companies.

6. Conclusions, research contributions and limitations

Based on the AT framework, this research delves into the various types of invoked strategies to deliver negative judgments, particularly within flaming discourse. It uncovers a wide array of lexical elements and source domains utilized to convey criticism and condemnation. These diverse elements are drawn from observations of events in the surrounding environment, indicating the significant influence of surrounding phenomena on shaping thoughts and creating terms for negatively evaluating products and capitalist entities. Indonesian netizens utilize social esteem when assessing problematic products, while social sanction is employed to condemn the actions and morals of capitalist entities. Among the invoked strategies, the strategy of affording appears to be the most prevalent. This suggests that to fully grasp the meaning behind posted comments, it is crucial to understand the contextual nuances within the pragmatic framework of negative judgment. Furthermore, within the realm of flaming discourse, the social esteem category emerges as the most commonly employed, driven by netizens’ pursuit of high-quality products. The findings of this study are tailored to the cultural context of Indonesian netizens, providing specific insights that may not directly translate to a broader global scale. However, certain negative judgment markers, like the use of caps lock and specific lexical elements related to politics and fauna, are commonly observed among netizens across different cultures. Hence, future researchers can explore flaming discourse using the AT framework by conducting comparative studies to uncover similarities and differences across various cultural contexts.

This research aims to provide valuable insights into the language and culture of Indonesian netizens who often use language rich in implicit meanings, such as metaphors, connotations, idioms and illocution. The findings of this research carry significant implications for addressing flaming discourse. For example, by imparting positive moral values to the younger generation, particularly regarding online ethics, we can educate them about the repercussions of engaging in negative behavior. This is particularly relevant given that over 57% of Instagram users in Indonesia fall within the age range of 18 to 30 years old (Julius, 2024). To proactively address online behavioral issues, it would be wise to develop educational materials that teach effective online interaction, respect for others and polite communication in virtual environments. Instilling moral values in the younger generation is essential for fostering harmony in both current and future societal dynamics, as evidenced by numerous legal cases and conflicts stemming from a lack of moral grounding (Pratiwi et al., 2023). Moreover, the findings of this research shed light on language behavior patterns inclined towards negative judgment, as evidenced by the invoked strategies such as the use of various lexical elements related to flora, fauna, professions, diseases, food and more. This insight can serve as a valuable consideration when developing detection tools aimed at addressing flaming discourse effectively.

However, this research is subject to limitations stemming from the selection and reliance on data acquired through manual observation methods, deemed most representative by the researchers. To mitigate this, future research can concentrate on analyzing flaming discourse using the AT, employing corpus linguistic tools like Antconc and N-Vivo for data collection. This approach aims to uncover implicit meanings within flaming discourse more comprehensively. Despite the limitations stemming from the presentation of representative data, the researchers have established specific criteria in an effort to acquire valid data. Alternatively, future researchers might consider examining various types of cyberbullying cases using an approach grounded in Systemic Functional Linguistics theory, which considers interpersonal meanings often overlooked in the current research. This approach could involve concentrating on analyzing data related to multimodal aspects such as emoticons, memes, stickers and other visual elements. Notably, the researchers have observed an abundance of data related to these aspects readily available for analysis. Therefore, future studies could leverage theories that specialize in examining visual elements as symbols of communication, such as the Visual Grammar Theory pioneered by Kress and Van Leeuwen (2006).

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Martutik

Martutik, a senior lecturer, has authored numerous research papers in the field of pragmatics, particularly focusing on advertising discourse. She is associated with the Department of Indonesian Literature in the Faculty of Literature at Universitas Negeri Malang.

Anang Santoso

Anang Santoso is a professor specializing in critical discourse analysis, primarily concentrating on teaching and research within the framework of systemic functional linguistics. His published works are fundamental resources for students and researchers in Indonesia interested in this field. He is associated with the Department of Indonesian Literature in the Faculty of Literature at Universitas Negeri Malang.

Abdul Rani

Abdul Rani specializes in teaching Indonesian language and applied linguistics. He holds the position of senior lecturer in the Department of Indonesian Language Education in the Faculty of Teacher Training and Education at Universitas Islam Malang. His contributions to applied linguistics are widely recognized as essential references for language teaching and research in Indonesia.

Bambang Prastio

Bambang Prastio is currently pursuing a doctoral degree in the Department of Indonesian Literature at the Faculty of Literature, Universitas Negeri Malang. His research focuses on integrating appraisal theory with ecolinguistics to analyze discourse related to forestry, environmental issues and advertising.

Ahsani Maulidina

Ahsani Maulidina is a lecturer at the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Politeknik Negeri Malang, where she teaches Indonesian language. Furthermore, she is a doctoral candidate at the Department of Indonesian Literature, Faculty of Literature, Universitas Negeri Malang, specializing in the fields of psycholinguistics and conversation analysis.