The Chantry Chapels of Cardinal Beaufort and Bishop Waynflete in Winchester Cathedral

Abstract

The great chantry chapels of Cardinal Beaufort (d. 1447) and Bishop Waynflete (d. 1486) dominate the 13th-century retrochoir of Winchester Cathedral, and once flanked the shrine of St Swithun. This paper considers the chapels’ patrons, formal vocabulary and relationship to other major tomb projects in 15th-century England. In particular, it focuses on the formal and conceptual relationships between the two chantries and their roles in liturgical and devotional practice and commemoration in Winchester Cathedral in the 15th century.

Keywords:

• Cardinal Beaufort
• Bishop Waynflete
• Winchester Cathedral
• chantries
• microarchitecture
• tombs
• shrine

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Research for this article (originally for an MA dissertation at the Courtauld Institute of Art) was largely conducted during Covid-19 lockdown. In a period of library and archive closures, I benefited from help from numerous people who provided me with advice, images or source material, many of them in response to requests lodged on the BAA resources page. I would like to thank John Crook for his help and advice on Winchester Cathedral and the chantries. Also Jessica Barker, Philip Lankester, Meg Bernstein, Paul Barnwell, Wilfried Keil, Christian Schalk and Christine Barz, David Rymill, Phillip Lindley, Douglas Brine, Kate Heard, Sophie Allen and Teresa Lane. Particular thanks go to Tom Nickson, my Courtauld tutor, who has provided me with invaluable advice and feedback on this project.

Notes

1 F. Sandford, A Genealogical History of the Kings of England and Monarchs of Great Britain (London 1677), 253–55.

2 The images appeared with text by R. Gough, ‘The Monument of Cardinal Beaufort in Winchester Cathedral’ and ‘The Monument of Bishop Waynflete in Winchester Cathedral’, in Vetusta Monumenta: Quae Ad Rerum Britannicarum Memoriam Conservandam Societas Antiquariorum Londini, II (London 1789), pls XLV–XLIX; (a)1–13; (b)1–5; Schnebbelie’s images in Society of Antiquaries, Hampshire Red Portfolio, II (1788).

3 Gough, ‘Monument of Cardinal Beaufort’, 1.

4 Sir Joshua Reynolds’ and Sir William Chambers’ comments were recorded in a letter from Jacob Schnebbelie to Richard Gough of 7 March 1789 (Soc. Antiq. MS 267, fol. 63); also cited in R. N. Quirk, ‘The Tomb of Cardinal Beaufort’, Winchester Cathedral Record, 23 (1954), 7, n. 7.

5 J. Britton, The History and Antiquities of the See and Cathedral Church of Winchester (London 1817), 95–96.

6 See especially G. H. Cook, Mediaeval Chantries and Chantry Chapels (London 1947), 91–92; M. Duffy, Royal Tombs of Medieval England (Stroud 2003), 238–41; Quirk, ‘Tomb of Cardinal Beaufort’, 6–10; J. Luxford, ‘The Origins and Development of the English “Stone-Cage” Chantry Chapel’, in The Medieval Chantry in England, JBAA, 164, ed. Luxford and J. McNeill (2011), 39–73, at 57–58; L. Milner, Digital edition of Vetusta Monumenta (2022): https://scalar.missouri.edu/vm/vol2plates45-50-winchester-cathedral-chantry-chapels (accessed 9 June 2022).

7 The term ‘Chantry’ (technically an institution for the performance of masses for the deceased person) is used in this article as an abbreviation of ‘Chantry Chapel’.

8 Luxford, ‘“Stone-Cage” Chantry’, 57.

9 For the retrochoir (and its height), see P. Draper, ‘The Retrochoir of Winchester Cathedral’, Architectural History, 21 (1978), 1–17, at 4.

10 J. Crook, ‘St Swithun of Winchester’, in Winchester Cathedral: Nine Hundred Years 1093–1993, ed. J. Crook (Chichester 1993), 57–68, at 64.

11 J. Barker, ‘Frustrated Seeing: Scale, Visibility, and a Fifteenth-Century Portuguese Royal Monument’, Art History, 41/2 (2018), 220–45.

12 Society of Antiquaries, Hampshire Red Portfolio, II; S. Gale, The History and Antiquities of the Cathedral Church of Winchester (London 1715), 30. The removal of bars (causing damage to mullions) and subsequent reinstatement is discussed in The Gentleman’s Magazine and Historical Chronicle, 98/ii (1828), 309–10, 596–97.

13 J. P. Brooke-Little, Boutell’s Heraldry (London and New York 1978), 120–21, 208.

14 R. Chandler, The Life of William Waynflete, Bishop of Winchester, Lord High Chancellor of England in the Reign of Henry VI and Founder of Magdalen College, Oxford (London 1811), 30.

15 Both canopies were restored in the 19th century, having suffered significant damage. In 1798 J. Milner recorded a ‘horse-load’ of fallen pinnacles from Beaufort’s, stored in a neighbouring chapel: Milner’s Historical Account of Winchester Cathedral, 9th edn (Winchester 1830), 98. Over 130 components were replaced in Waynflete’s canopy (using Painswick and Farley Down stone) following accidental damage: Gentleman’s Magazine (1828), 310.

16 See J. Alexander and P. Binski ed., Age of Chivalry: Art in Plantagenet England 1200–1400 (London 1987), 470–71; D. Park and P. Welford, ‘The Medieval Polychromy of Winchester Cathedral’, in Winchester Cathedral, 123–38, at 133.

17 Park and Welford, ‘Medieval Polychromy’, 133.

18 Chandler, Waynflete, 296, 380; W. H. St John Hope, Report on Bishop Waynflete’s Chapel in Winchester Cathedral (London 1898, Soc. Antiqs., TR 237*), 5.

19 F. Bucher, ‘Micro-Architecture as the “Idea” of Gothic Theory and Style’, Gesta, 15 (1976), 71–89, at 72; A. Timmermann, ‘Microarchitecture in the Medieval West, 800–1550’, in The Cambridge History of Religious Architecture of the World, ed. R. Etlin (New York and Cambridge forthcoming).

20 J. Nichols, A Collection of All the Wills Now Known To Be Extant Of The Kings and Queens of England (London 1780), 323.

21 Compare the plan of the earlier Neville screen in C. Wilson, ‘The Neville Screen’, in Medieval Art and Architecture at Durham Cathedral, ed. N. Coldstream and P. Draper, BAA Trans., iii (Leeds 1980), 90–104, at fig. 4.

22 John 14:2 cited in C. Wilson, ‘The Medieval Monuments’, in A History of Canterbury Cathedral, ed. P. Collinson, N. Ramsay and M. Sparks (Oxford 1995), 451–510, at 460.

23 Timmermann, ‘Microarchitecture’.

24 Psalm 48:12 and Hebrews 12:22–23 liken Mount Zion to the Heavenly Jerusalem (compare Wilson, ‘Medieval Monuments’, 481, n.136). Key studies of microarchitecture include Bucher, ‘Micro-Architecture’; P. Binski, Gothic Wonder: Art, Artifice and the Decorated Style 1290–1350 (New Haven and London 2014), 121–60; C. Kratzke and U. Albrecht ed., Mikroarchitektur im Mittelalter: Ein gattungsübergreifendes Phänomen zwischen Realität und Imagination (Leipzig 2008); J. Guillouët and A. Vilain ed., Microarchitectures Médiévales: L’échelle à l’épreuve de la matière (Paris 2018).

25 T. Tatton-Brown, ‘Building Stones of Winchester Cathedral’ in Winchester Cathedral, 37–46, at 44; J. Crook, English Medieval Shrines (Woodbridge 2011), 285–88.

26 Crook, English Medieval Shrines, 287.

27 Draper, ‘Retrochoir’, 6. Antje Fehrmann noted that the continuation of bases, shaft rings and capitals from the architectural setting was also a feature of Henry V’s chapel in Westminster: ‘Mikroarchitektur oder Makroskulptur? Kapellen, Festarchitektur und ihre Rezeption im England des Spätmittelalters’, in Mikroarchitektur im Mittelalter, 61–80, at 67.

28 Cook thought there was no medieval effigy (Mediaeval Chantries, 92), Luxford that it was a gilt-bronze effigy (‘“Stone-Cage” Chantry’, 58), Duffy that it was copper-plate (Royal Tombs, 240), G. L. Harriss that the effigy was wood covered with silver-gilt plates and was modelled on Henry V’s: Cardinal Beaufort a Study of Lancastrian Ascendancy and Decline (Oxford 1988), 378.

29 Lieutenant Hammond’s description is in London, British Library, MS Lansdowne 213, reprinted in Camden Miscellany (1936), cited in Quirk, ‘Tomb of Cardinal Beaufort’, 6.

30 Quirk, ‘Tomb of Cardinal Beaufort’, 6–10.

31 Shown in A History of Canterbury Cathedral, pl. 88.

32 Gentleman’s Magazine (1828), 310.

33 S. Badham, ‘Divided in Death: The iconography of English medieval heart and entrails monuments’, Church Monuments, Journal of the Church Monuments Society, 34 (2019), 16–76, at 27, 56 and 70.

34 M. Bullen, J. Crook, R. Hubbuck and N. Pevsner, B/EN. Hampshire: Winchester and the North (New Haven and London 2010), 594.

35 Gough: Vetusta Monumenta, 2; Crook, B/EN. Hampshire: Winchester, 594.

36 The partial inscription was recorded by Francis Godwin, ‘History de Praesulibus Angliae’ (1601), cited in Sandford, Genealogical History, 254. A. J. Gribben has linked the wording to a responsory for (Lent) Matins, continuing ‘You have said I do not wish the death of the sinner but that he might turn from his wickedness and live […]’: ‘“Tribularer si nescirem misericordias tuas”: Cardinal Henry Beaufort and his Carthusian Confessor’, Studies in Carthusian Monasticism in the Late Middle Ages, ed. J. Luxford (Turnhout 2009), 73–106, at 73.

37 Duffy, Royal Tombs, 241. There is no evidence from surviving fragments that twisted columns were a feature of Swithun’s shrine: Crook, English Medieval Shrines, 285–88.

38 Quirk, ‘Tomb of Cardinal Beaufort’, 6–10.

39 J. Greatrex ed., The Register of the Common Seal of the Priory of St Swithun, Winchester 1345–1497, Hampshire Record Series, II (Trowbridge 1979), 105–07. A separate copy of the will is recorded in ‘Register Stafford and Kemp’, fols 111–13, printed in Nichols, Wills, 321–44. Another version, with variations, appears in N. H. Nicolas, Testamenta Vetusta (London 1826), 249–55.

40 Nichols, Wills, 321, 324; Greatrex, Register, 105.

41 W. Sparrow Simpson, ‘Two Inventories of the Cathedral Church of St. Paul, London, dated respectively 1245 and 1302’, Archaeologia, 50 (1887), 439–524, at 520.

42 Greatrex, Register, 113–14.

43 Chandler, Waynflete, 219, 380.

44 Payments by Beaufort’s executors for the shrine are recorded in Greatrex, Register, 102–04.

45 The description of Swithun’s translation ceremony of 1476 is in D. Wilkins, Concilia Magnae Britanniae et Hiberniae, 4 vols (London 1737), III, 610–11; translation in C. Harper-Bill ed., The Register of John Morton, Archbishop of Canterbury, 1486–1500, 2 vols, Canterbury and York Society, 75 and 78 (1987–91), II, 52–53, quoted in M. Lapidge, The Cult of St Swithun (Oxford 2003), 35–37.

46 Crook, ‘St Swithun of Winchester’, 64; R. Marks and P. Williamson ed., Gothic: Art for England 1400–1547 (London 2003), 356.

47 Britton, History and Antiquities, 98; P. Lindley, ‘The “Great Screen” of Winchester Cathedral II: Style and Date’, The Burlington Magazine, 135 (1993), 797–807, at 799; Crook, B/EN. Hampshire: Winchester, 594.

48 Luxford, ‘“Stone-Cage” Chantry’, 40–41, 57–58.

49 Ibid., 46.

50 Nave vault height in G. Knappett ed., Winchester Cathedral (London and Winchester 2012), 6.

51 L. B. Radford, Henry Beaufort, Bishop, Chancellor, Cardinal, ed. W. H. Hutton (London 1908), 1–2.

52 Harriss, Beaufort, 7, 41.

53 The see’s gross annual revenue in 1410 was approximately £4,000: B. Campbell, ‘A Unique Estate and a Unique Source: the Winchester Pipe Rolls in Perspective’, in The Winchester Pipe Rolls and Medieval English Society, ed. R. Britnell (Woodbridge 2003), 29; Harriss, Beaufort, 394.

54 Harriss, Beaufort, 21, 30, 69–70, 88, 107–09, 125, 127.

55 Ibid., 25–26, 47, 71, 76–77, 92–93, 167, 196, 199, 209–16, 226, 251, 277, 296–99, 388.

56 He was eventually invested as cardinal in March 1427, a decade after his first nomination for the position by Martin V: ibid., 47, 94, 96, 152, 174.

57 Ibid., 182.

58 Ibid., 25–26, 34, 77, 92–97, 167, 209–17, 251, 296–99.

59 V. Davis, William Waynflete, Bishop and Educationalist (Woodbridge 1993), 6–7.

60 Ibid., 11.

61 Ibid., 14.

62 Royal Congé d’Elire granted by Henry VI (11 April 1447) recorded in Greatrex, Register, 99.

63 Davis, Waynflete, 28–29.

64 Ibid., 31–32, 51.

65 Chandler, Waynflete, 28, 226; Davis, Waynflete, 33–34, 174.

66 Chandler, Waynflete, 18–20; Davis, Waynflete, 13.

67 Waynflete was not one of Beaufort’s named executors, however: Harriss, Beaufort, 380–83.

68 O. D. Harris, ‘“Une tresriche sepulture”: The Tomb and Chantry of John of Gaunt and Blanche of Lancaster in Old St Paul’s Cathedral, London’, Journal of the Church Monuments Society, 25 (2010), 7–35, at 7; J. Barker, ‘Stone and Bone: The Corpse, the Effigy and the Viewer in Late-Medieval Tomb Sculpture’, in Revisiting the Monument: Fifty Years Since Panofsky’s Tomb Sculpture, ed. A. Adams and J. Barker (London 2016), 113–36, at 121.

69 Sedgwick’s drawing in Sir William Dugdale’s Book of Monuments, London, British Library, Add. MS 71474, fol. 183r.

70 Harris, ‘“tresriche sepulture”’, 14.

71 Pintoin’s description in M. L. Bellaguet ed., Chronique du Religieux de Saint-Denys, 6 vols (Paris 1839–52), I, 448–49; Creton’s description in J. Webb ed., ‘Translation of a French Metrical History of the Deposition of King Richard the Second’, Archaeologia, 20 (1824), 378; also J. Buchon ed., ‘Poème sur la deposition de Richard II’, in Collection des Chroniques Nationales Françaises, 46 vols (Paris 1824–29), XXIV, 418; all cited in Harris, ‘“tresriche sepulture”’, 7, 29, nn. 2, 3.

72 Harris, ‘“tresriche sepulture”’, 24.

73 A. Fehrmann, ‘Politics and Posterity: English Royal Chantry Provision 1232–1509’, JBAA, 164 (2011), 74–99, at 82; J. Goodall and L. Monckton, ‘The Chantry of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester’, in Alban and St Albans: Roman and Medieval Architecture, Art and Archaeology, ed. M. Henig and P. Lindley, BAA Trans., xxiv (Leeds 2001), 231–55, at 238.

74 Fehrmann, ‘Politics and Posterity’, 82; Harris, ‘“tresriche sepulture”’, 15.

75 Length of Gaunt’s tomb estimated using known dimensions of choir arches at Old St Pauls at 3.6 m max, height c. 7 m, width ?2.5–3 m, in Harris, ‘“tresriche sepulture”’, 14. Beaufort’s chantry dimensions: Length c. 6.7 m, height 10–11 m, width c. 3.7 m.

76 Wilson, ‘Medieval Monuments’, 503; Harris, ‘“tresriche sepulture”’, 11.

77 J. H. Harvey, Henry Yevele c. 1320 to 1400: The Life of an English Architect (London 1944), 37.

78 Wilson, ‘The Neville Screen’, 96.

79 W. H. St John Hope, ‘The Funeral, Monument and Chantry Chapel of King Henry the Fifth’, Archaeologia, 65 (1914), 129–86, at 153–54, 160–77; P. Binski, Westminster Abbey and the Plantagenets: Kingship and the Representation of Power 1200–1400 (New Haven and London 1995), 147–48.

80 Harriss, Beaufort, 84–86.

81 Binski, Westminster Abbey, 148.

82 Harriss, Beaufort, 378; Greatrex, Register, 105; Nicolas, Testamenta Vetusta, 250; Hope, ‘Henry the Fifth’, 153, 169; Duffy, Royal Tombs, 214.

83 Duffy, Royal Tombs, 240; Hope, ‘Henry the Fifth’, 169.

84 See Hope, ‘Henry the Fifth’, 178–79; Nichols, Wills, 324.

85 Goodall and Monckton, ‘Chantry of Humphrey’, 236–37; Fehrmann, ‘Politics and Posterity’, 90–92.

86 Goodall and Monckton, ‘Chantry of Humphrey’, 250.

87 Ibid., 242, 250–52.

88 Hope, ‘Henry the Fifth’, 177.

89 Harriss, Beaufort, 367; Frank Woodman suggested that Beaufort may even have provided the initial funding for Beke’s work on the pulpitum at Canterbury with his bequest of £1,000, together with his nephew, Edmund Beaufort, 2nd duke of Somerset: The Architectural History of Canterbury Cathedral (London and Boston 1981), 194–95; Woodman subsequently narrowed his focus to Edmund Beaufort: ‘Kinship and Architectural Patronage in Late Medieval Canterbury: The Hollands, the Lady Chapel and the Empty Tomb’, in Medieval Art, Architecture & Archaeology at Canterbury, ed. A. Bovey, BAA Trans., xxxv (2013), 245–60, at 254.

90 The feud featured in the plays of W. Shakespeare: Henry VI, I & II, ed. J. Bate and E. Rasmussen (Basingstoke 2012), 159–77; E. Blore, ‘Humphrey Duke of Gloucester’, The Monumental Remains of Noble and Eminent Persons, Comprising the Sepulchral Antiquities of Great Britain (London 1826), ch. 26, 3–5.

91 Harriss, Beaufort 117, 134, 152, 165, 214–18, 254, 308–09.

92 Goodall and Monckton, ‘Chantry of Humphrey’, 249.

93 Ibid., 234; 237; Fehrmann, ‘Politics and Posterity’, 92–93. Duffy considered the possibility that Gloucester may have intended to have a tomb but died intestate, without heir and with a wife in disgrace: Royal Tombs, 236.

94 Greatrex, Register, 106; visit recorded in the Register of Abbot Curteys, translated in W. Dugdale, Monasticon Anglicanum, III, ed. J. Caley (London 1846), 113; London, British Library, Harley MS 2278, ‘Presentation Copy of John Lydgate’s Lives of SS Edmund and Fremund’ (1434–39), fol. 4v; M. Heale, Monasticism in Late Medieval England, c. 1300–1535 (Manchester 2009), 189–93.

95 Beaufort was considered as a papal candidate in 1417 and was subsequently offered a cardinalate by the newly elected Martin V, which he was prevented from accepting by Henry V (being finally invested in 1427): Harris, Beaufort, 93, 174.

96 Timmermann, ‘Microarchitecture’, 6–8; Bucher, ‘Micro-Architecture’, 71–83.

97 R. Bork, The Geometry of Creation: Architectural Drawing and the Dynamics of Gothic Design (Farnham and Burlington, VT, 2011), 285–88.

98 ‘Ulm Plan A’ by Ulrich Von Ensingen, Ulm Stadtarchiv (F1 Munsterrisse no. 1), in Bork, Geometry, 288.

99 R. Kahsnitz, Carved Splendor: Late Gothic Altarpieces in Southern Germany, Austria and South Tirol (Los Angeles 2006), 10.

100 A. B. Wyon, ‘On the Great Seals of Henry IV, Henry V and Henry VI, and More Particularly on the Second Great Seal of Henry IV’, JBAA, 39 (1883), 139–67; Gothic: Art for England, 174. Beaufort’s own episcopal seal (after 1427) was not of this canopied design, but showed a cardinal’s hat and his arms: British Museum Seal Impression, 2000,0103.215.

101 R. Willis, ‘On the History of the Great Seals of England, especially those of Edward III’, Archaeol. J., 2 (1845), 26–32.

102 Wyon, ‘Great Seals’, 143.

103 Ibid., 148.

104 Ibid., 150.

105 E. A. New, Seals and Sealing Practices (London 2010), 33.

106 London, British Library, Add. MS 74236, 12, 36, 276, 376. See J. S. Curl and S. Wilson, The Oxford Dictionary of Architecture (Oxford 2015), 373; Harriss, Beaufort, 370–73.

107 Crook, B/EN. Hampshire: Winchester, 594. See B. Wispelwey ed., Biographical Index of the Middle Ages (Munich 2008), 450; J. Harvey, English Medieval Architects (London 1954), 118–19.

108 J. A. A. Goodall, God’s House at Ewelme: Life, devotion and architecture in a fifteenth-century almshouse (Aldershot 2001), 179.

109 Davis, Waynflete, 100–02; HMC Report on the manuscripts of Lord de l’Isle & Dudley preserved at Penshurst Place, 6 vols (London 1925–66), I, 179.

110 Lord de l’Isle & Dudley, 199: J. Harvey, English Mediaeval Architects (London 1954), 77.

111 Harvey, Mediaeval Architects, 77; Davis, Waynflete, 115; L. F. Salzman, Building in England Down to 1540: A Documentary History (Oxford 1997), 538–40.

112 For Archbishop Winchelsea’s order for the removal of a monument at Worcester, see Wilson, ‘Medieval Monuments’, 451–52.

113 Ibid., 452.

114 Ibid., 452, 495.

115 ‘The Islip Roll’, Westminster Abbey, https://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/john-islip (accessed 15 June 2020).

116 Luxford, ‘“Stone-Cage” Chantry’, 56–57.

117 J. Maddison, Ely Cathedral: Design and Meaning (Ely 2000), 95–101.

118 Draper, ‘Retrochoir’, 6–7.

119 Tom Nickson, ‘Introduction: Gothic Architecture in Spain: Invention and Imitation’, in Gothic Architecture in Spain: Invention and Imitation, ed. T. Nickson and N. Jennings (London 2020), 18–21.

120 E. Friedberg ed., Corpus Iuris Canonici (Leipzig 1879–81), I, c. 7 q. 1, c. 9, cited in B. Dobson, ‘Two Ecclesiastical Patrons: Archbishop Henry Chichele of Canterbury (1414–43) and Bishop Richard Fox of Winchester (1501–28)’, in Gothic: Art for England, 234–45, at 234.

121 1 Peter. 2:4–6; Ephesians 2:19–21; M. Hutterer, Framing the Church: The Social and Artistic Power of Buttresses in French Gothic Architecture (Pennsylvania 2019), 94–95.

122 P. Lindley has suggested that two surviving statues, possibly a monk and nun, may have been part of the chantry’s reredos: ‘Figure-Sculpture at Winchester in the Fifteenth Century: A New Chronology’, in England in the Fifteenth Century: Proceedings of the 1986 Harlaxtan Symposium, ed. D. Williams (Woodbridge 1987), 153–66, at 164–66.

123 Binski discussed the ‘regime of the aesthetic’ deployed in chantries and tombs in terms of persuasion (captatio benevolentiae): Gothic Wonder, 185.

124 E. Wilson, ‘A Poem Presented to William Waynflete as Bishop of Winchester’, Middle English Studies Presented to Norman Davies in honour of his seventieth birthday (Oxford 1983), 139, cited in B. Dobson, ‘The English Monastic Cathedrals in the Fifteenth Century’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, I (1991), 151–72, at 162.

125 S. Nash, ‘Claus Sluter’s “Well of Moses” for the Chartreuse de Champmol Reconsidered: Part III’, The Burlington Magazine, 150 (November 2008), 724–41, at 730.

126 Chandler, Waynflete, 296.

127 H. S. Altham, ‘William of Waynflete’, Winchester Cathedral Record, 24 (1955), 8–12, at 9.

128 J. Le Couteur and D. Carter, ‘Notes on the Shrine of St. Swithun formerly in Winchester Cathedral’, Antiq. J., 4 (1924), 359–70; Lapidge, The Cult of St Swithun, 4, ii, 25–61.

129 For the Translation ceremony, see note 45.

130 Remnants of this mechanism can still be seen: Crook, ‘St Swithun of Winchester’, 66.

131 Wilson, ‘Neville Screen’, 95.

132 S. Roper, Medieval English Benedictine Liturgy: Studies in the Formation, Structure and Content of the Monastic Votive Office c.950–1540 (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Oxford University, 1988), 3–5, 267.

133 R. Bartlett, Why Can the Dead Do Such Great Things? Saints and Worshippers from the Martyrs to the Reformation (Princeton and Oxford 2013), 154.

134 Kitchin, Compotus Rolls of the Obedientaries of St Swithun’s Priory, Winchester: from the Winchester Cathedral Archives, 295, n.1, 300, n.1, 453, n.3.

135 J. Crook, The Architectural Setting of the Cult of Saints in the Early Christian West, c.300–1200 (Oxford 2000), 16; J. Crook, ‘Medieval royal and episcopal burials in Winchester Cathedral’, Antiq. J. (forthcoming).

136 E. Duffy, The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England 1400–1580 (New Haven and London 2005), 160–66; F. S. Ellis ed., The Golden Legend or Lives of the Saints as Englished by William Caxton, 7 vols (London 1900), VI, 97, https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/goldenlegend/GoldenLegend-Volume6.asp#All%20Hallows (accessed 11 March 2021). The Latin version of this: ‘propter debitum mutuae vicissitudinis’ in Jacobi a Voragine, Legenda Aurea, ed. J. Grässe, 2nd edn (Leipzig 1850), 720. Surviving manuscripts of the Golden Legend from Winchester monastic library: Cambridge University Library MS Gg 2 18 (c. 1300) and TCC MS B 15 1 (15thC), cited in J. Luxford, The Art and Architecture of English Benedictine Monasteries (Woodbridge 2012), 26, 105–06.

137 William Sedgwick image (1640–41) of Bishop Fleming’s tomb in Dugdale, ‘Book of Monuments’, London, British Library, Add. MS 71474, fol. 97; P. Binski, Medieval Death: Ritual and Representation (London 1996), 142–43; Wilson, ‘Medieval Monuments’, 476–78.

138 Bartlett, Why Can the Dead, 151–62; Roper, Benedictine Liturgy, 292–96.

139 Dillian Gordon suggested the configuration of saints within the Wilton Diptych of c. 1395–99 may have functioned as a mnemonic for the positions of their respective chapels in Westminster Abbey: The Wilton Diptych (London 2015), 80–81.

140 D. Brine, ‘Jan van Eyck, Canon Joris van der Paele and the Art of Commemoration’, The Art Bulletin, 96 (2014), 265–87; Beaufort’s visits to Burgundy in Harriss, Cardinal Beaufort, 216, 388; M. Vale, ‘Cardinal Beaufort and the “Albergati” Portrait’, The English Historical Review, 105 (1990), 337–54, at 345–46.

141 This painting is now in the Groeningemuseum, Bruges: Till-Holger Borchert, Van Eyck (Cologne 2008), 56.

142 The painting is in the National Gallery, London. Hans Memling was German-born, but worked in Bruges from 1465: J. Dunkerton, S. Foister et al., Giotto to Dürer, Early Renaissance Painting in The National Gallery (New Haven and London 1991), 320; S. Nash, Northern Renaissance Art (Oxford 2008), 84, 124.

143 Lindley, ‘The “Great Screen”, Part II’, 805–07; E. Howe, H. McBurney, D. Park et al., The Wall Paintings of Eton (London 2012), 21.

144 Chandler, Waynflete, 174, 382.

145 The link to the Sursum corda is suggested by Cook: Mediaeval Chantries, 92. Psalms 86: 4; 25: 1, David: ‘Unto thee, O Lord, I do lift up my soul’.

146 S. Badham noted a frequent textual source as Job 19: 25–27: ‘Heart Imagery on medieval English brasses’, Monumental Brass Society Bulletin, 144 (2020), 867–69; Badham, ‘Divided in Death’, 66–69.

147 I. Warntjes, ‘Programmatic Double Burial (Body and Heart) of the European High Nobility, c.1200–1400: Its Origin, Geography and Functions’, in Death at Court, ed. K. Spiesz and I. Warntjes (Wiesbaden 2012), 197–259, at 210–11.

148 J. de Voragine, The Golden Legend: Readings on the Saints, trans. W. Ryan, 2 vols (Princeton 1993), I, 197.

149 London, British Library, MS Harley 1251, fol. 148.

150 Harriss, Beaufort, 370–71, 379.

151 Davis, Waynflete, 51, 53, 83, 112, 153.

152 The term ‘powerful technology for salvation’ coined by P. Graves, cited in S. Roffey, Chantry Chapels and Medieval Strategies for the Afterlife (Stroud 2008), 20.