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Abstract
This article explores the impact of COVID-19 on artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) supply chains in Peru between spring 2020 and early 2021. This analysis delves into the effects of the pandemic on the ASGM sector and the illicit flow of gold, including the effect of the mandated lockdown on the Peruvian economy, the price of gold and its impact on artisanal and small-scale mining communities, the socio-economic consequences of the quarantine on Peru's ASGM population, and the impact of lockdown on the gold supply chain. This study suggests the artisanal and small-scale mining formalization process in Peru was greatly impacted by the coronavirus pandemic, which brought complications such as increased criminal activity and violence along the gold supply chain. Similar trends can be seen in ASGM populations around the globe, and case studies from Zimbabwe, Colombia, Bolivia, and Chile explore how different governments have handled the effect of COVID-19 on the ASGM sector. This article highlights recommendations for governments and other key stakeholders to consider for supporting and strengthening ASGM communities, the gold supply chain, and the pursuit of formalization in Peru and worldwide.
Disclosure statement
This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 1935630. Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. The National Science Foundation award was granted to Colorado School of Mines in 2019 to support research on gold supply chains in Peru and to propose avenues to disrupt illicit segments of those supply chains. This three-year study began in 2020 under the leadership of Colorado School of Mines in collaboration with Sustainable Development Strategies Group (SDSG). It is carried out by an interdisciplinary team of engineers, social scientists and attorneys. This line of study is important because illicit gold mining activity in Peru is linked to environmental damage through uncontrolled mercury use and deforestation; poor working conditions and violence, including child labour, human trafficking and extortion; and illegal cross-border trade and criminal networks. Accordingly, this research has implications for human health and well-being, the environment, and national and international security. For more information about this study, contact SDSG at [email protected].
Notes
1 The terms artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) and artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) are used throughout this article, as appropriate.
2 Shawn Blore, Marieke Kroll, and Kevin Telmer, ‘Artisanal Gold Communities as Prime COVID-19 Intervention Targets: Supply Chain Reform, Health in Gold Out’ (Artisanal Gold Council, 14 May 2020) www.artisanalgold.org/2020/05/artisanal-gold-communities-covid-19-intervention accessed 13 October 2020.
3 Ibid.
4 IISD, ‘Global Trends in Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM): A Review of Key Numbers and Issues’ (January 2018) https://iisd.org/system/files/publications/igf-asm-global-trends.pdf accessed 13 October 2020; Kevin Telmer, ‘Impact of COVID-19 on ASGM Communities’ (Artisanal Gold Council, 23 March 2020) https://responsiblemines.org/en/2020/04/impact-covid-19-artisanal-small-scale-mining accessed 13 October 2020.
5 Kevin Telmer and Marieke Kroll, ‘COVID-19 and ASGM Communities – An Early Look at the Crisis’ (Artisanal Gold Council, 23 March 2020) https://artisanalgold.org/covid-19-and-asgm-communities-early-look-crisis accessed 13 October 2020.
6 ‘Emergency Action Needed for Vulnerable Artisanal & Small-Scale Mining Communities & Supply Chains’ (OECD Watch, 12 May 2020) https://oecdwatch.org/2020/05/12/emergency-action-needed-for-vulnerable-artisanal-and-small-scale-mining-communities-and-supply-chains accessed 13 October 2020.
7 Kathleen M. Smits and others, ‘Voces Mineras: Clarifying the Future of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Collaborations’ (The Extractives Industry and Society, 19 December 2019) https://sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214790X19301996 accessed 1 February 2020.
8 MENAFN, ‘Peru: Highest Mortality Rate from COVID-19’ (27 August 2020) https://menafn.com/1100706914/Peru-Highest-mortality-rate-from-COVID-19 accessed 13 October 2020.
9 CoronaTracker, ‘Peru Overview’ https://coronatracker.com/country/peru accessed 28 January 2021. In the fall of 2020, the Peru death rate from COVID-19 was the worst in the world, and it was double that of the more populous nations of the United States and Brazil. Jake Kincaid, ‘Despite Early, Strict Quarantine Measures, Peru Has Worst COVID-19 Death Rate in the World’ (Miami Herald, 10 September 2020) https://miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/americas/article245600805.html accessed 13 October 2020. Peru is home to 33 million people, compared to nearly 330 million in the United States and 211 million in Brazil.
10 Solidaridad, ‘You Can Contribute to Alleviate COVID-19 Impact on Small-Scale Miners’ (28 July 2020) https://www.solidaridadnetwork.org/news/you-can-contribute-to-alleviate-covid-19-impact-on-small-scale-miners accessed 28 September 2020.
11 El Peruano, ‘El 71.1% de los Trabajadores en el Perú son Informales’ (2 April 2020) https://elperuano.pe/noticia-el-711-de-trabajadores-el-peru-son-informales-93831.aspx accessed 13 October 2020.
12 Ibid.
13 Ibid.
14 Kincaid (n 9).
15 Gestión, ‘Mercado de Frutas: el 89.6% de Comerciantes Testeados Dio Positivo Para Coronavirus’ (15 May 2020) https://gestion.pe/peru/coronavirus-peru-las-victoria-el-896-de-comerciantes-testeados-del-mercado-modelo-de-frutas-dio-positivo-a-covid-19-fotos-nndc-noticia accessed 13 October 2020; Kincaid (n 9).
16 John Letzing, ‘The Plight of Peru Illustrates the Danger of COVID-19 to Developing Countries’ (World Economic Forum, 17 June 2020) https://weforum.org/agenda/2020/06/the-plight-of-peru-illustrates-the-danger-of-covid-19-to-developing-countries accessed 13 October 2020.
17 Ibid.
18 Korey Finn, ‘The Informal Economy in Peru: A Blueprint for Systemic Reform’ (Lehigh Preserve, 2017) https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/228665033.pdf accessed 1 February 2021.
19 Centro Nacional de Planeamiento Estratégico (CEPLAN), ‘Economía informal en Perú: Situación actual y perspectivas’ (2016) https://perureports.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/Economia-informal-en-Peru-situacion-actual-perspectivas-15-03-2016.pdf accessed 1 February 2021.
20 Ibid.
21 ‘Informality persists with a low probability of transition to formal employment,’ states the report. Colin Post, ‘Peru's Informal Economy to Persist for Decades: Report’ (Peru Report, 10 May 2016) https://perureports.com/perus-informal-economy-persist-decades-report/3901 accessed 1 February 2021. Ninety-five per cent of Peruvians with no high school education and 92 per cent of workers in rural areas work informally, or outside the law. Colin Post, ‘World Bank Recommends Peru Loosen Labor Regulations’, (Peru Report, 8 October 2015) https://perureports.com/world-bank-recommends-peru-loosen-labor-regulation/2422 accessed 1 February 2021.
22 CEPLAN (n 19).
23 ‘Peru's Informal Economy to Persist for Decades: Report’ (Peru Report, 10 May 2016) https://perureports.com/perus-informal-economy-persist-decades-report/3901 accessed 1 February 2021.
24 Ibid.
25 Post, ‘World Bank Recommends’ (n 21).
26 CEPLAN (n 19).
27 Finn (n 18).
28 Ibid.
29 Mitra Taj and Anatoly Kurmanaev, ‘Virus Exposes Weak Links in Peru's Success Story’ (New York Times, 12 June 2020) https://nytimes.com/2020/06/12/world/americas/coronavirus-peru-inequality-corruption.html?campaign_id=57&emc=edit_ne_20200612&instance_id=19369&nl=evening-briefing®i_id=84340260&segment_id=30822&te=1&user_id=0a1c49ffc02efac2ea755060e0a20c32 accessed 13 October 2020.
30 Ibid.
31 Letzing (n 16).
32 Ibid.
33 Peter Velt and Patricia Quijano Vallejos, ‘COVID-19, Rising Gold Prices and Illegal Mining Threaten Indigenous Lands in the Amazon’ (World Resources Institute, 8 September 2020) https://wri.org/blog/2020/09/covid-19-rising-gold-prices-and-illegal-mining-threaten-indigenous-lands-amazon accessed 13 October 2020.
34 Sergio Saffron, ‘Soaring Gold Prices During Pandemic Fuel Peru's Illegal Gold Mining’ (InSight Crime, 30 June 2020) https://insightcrime.org/news/brief/peru-coronavirus-illegal-mining accessed 13 October 2020.
35 MINSA, ‘Sala Situacional: COVID-19 Perú’ (2020) https://covid19.minsa.gob.pe/sala_situacional.asp accessed 28 January 2021.
36 Saffron (n 34); see Adam Rolfe and Estelle Levin-Nally, ‘Six Reasons Why COVID-19 Response Planning Should Prioritise ASM Communities’ (Levin Sources, 21 April 2020) https://levinsources.com/knowledge-centre/insights/covid19-response-planning-prioritise-asm-communities accessed 13 October 2020.
37 ‘Emergency Action Needed’ (n 6); see Shamiso Mtisi and others, ‘COVID-19: Mining Sector and Communities’ Situational Report (Sit-Rep) 3rd Series’ (Zimbabwe Environmental Law Group, May 2020) http://www.zela.org/covid-19-publications accessed 13 October 2020.
38 Blore, Kroll, and Telmer (n 2).
39 See Mtisi and others (n 37).
40 Kenneth Davis, ‘Monitoring the Impacts of COVID-19 on Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining’ (planetGOLD, 1 April 2020) https://planetgold.org/monitoring-impacts-covid-19-artisanal-and-small-scale-gold-mining accessed 28 September 2020.
41 See Gisselle Vila Benites and Anthony Bebbington, ‘Political Settlements and the Governance of COVID-19: Mining, Risk, and Territorial Control in Peru’ (Journal of Latin American Geography, 27 May 2020) https://muse.jhu.edu/article/760941 accessed 11 August 2020.
42 UNDP Peru, ‘How Can Peru Transform Artisanal Mining After COVID-19?’ (planetGOLD, 25 May 2020) https://planetgold.org/how-can-peru-transform-artisanal-mining-after-covid-19 accessed 13 October 2020.
43 Statista, ‘Distribution of Gold Mine Production in Peru 2019, By Region’ (19 August 2020) https://statista.com/statistics/1030921/peru-gold-mine-production-region accessed 13 October 2020. Shawn Blore, Marieke Kroll, and Kevin Telmer, 'Artisanal Gold Communities as Prime COVID-19 Intervention Targets: Supply Chain Reform, Health In Gold Out' (Artisanal Gold Council, 14 May 2020) https://www.artisanalgold.org/2020/05/artisanal-gold-communities-covid-19-intervention/ accessed 13 October 2020.
44 UNDP Peru (n 42).
45 Franco Arista, ‘ASGM in the Time of COVID-19: How to Reactivate Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in Peru?’ (planetGOLD/UNDP, 27 April 2020) https://planetgold.org/sites/default/files/2020-04/ASGM%20in%20the%20time%20of%20COVID-19_planetGOLD_EN.pdf accessed 13 October 2020.
46 See Vila Benites and Bebbington (n 41). The second quarter alone of 2020 saw GDP fall 30 per cent. https://elcomercio.pe/economia/peru/economia-peruana-cierra-segundo-trimestre-con-caida-de-302-tras-el-golpe-de-la-pandemia-pbi-nndc-noticia (20 August 2020) accessed 11 October 2020.
47 Arista (n 45).
48 Ibid; John Letzing, ‘The Plight of Peru Illustrates the Danger of COVID-19 to Developing Countries' (World Economic Forum, 17 June 2020) https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/06/the-plight-of-peru-illustrates-the-danger-of-covid-19-to-developing-countries/ accessed 13 October 2020.
49 Arista (n 45).
50 UNDP Peru (n 42).
51 See Vila Benites and Bebbington (n 41).
52 Ibid.
53 Supreme Decree 044-2020.
54 See Vila Benites and Bebbington (n 41).
55 Ibid.
56 Ibid.
57 Bnamericas, ‘Peru Seeking to Kickstart US$58bn Mining Project Pipeline’ (16 July 2020) https://bnamericas.com/en/news/peru-seeking-to-kickstart-us58bn-mining-project-pipeline accessed 14 October 2020.
58 KPMG, ‘Peru: Government and Institution Measures in Response to COVID-19’ (last updated 12 August 2020) https://home.kpmg/xx/en/home/insights/2020/04/peru-government-and-institution-measures-in-response-to-covid.print.html; https://pe.usembassy.gov/covid-19-information accessed 11 October 2020.
59 See Vila Benites and Bebbington (n 41).
60 Ibid.
61 Bono ‘yo me quedo en casa’, bono independiente, bono rural, and bono familiar universal in Spanish.
62 See Vila Benites and Bebbington (n 41).
63 Reports show that many artisanal and small-scale miners have not received government benefits for COVID-19 relief, as miners who are self-employed or illegal may not be eligible. See Isabelle Ramdoo, ‘The Impact of COVID-19 on Employment in Mining’ (IGF, June 2020) https://iisd.org/sites/default/files/publications/covid-19-employment-mining-en.pdf accessed 13 October 2020; Tina Blazquez-Lopez, ‘The Effect of COVID-19 on Women in Artisanal Mining’ (Bryan Cave Leighton Paisner LLP, 8 June 2020) https://lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=708720a4-eeb7-4c00-b487-b84ea179c5a6 accessed 28 September 2020.
64 See Vila Benites and Bebbington (n 41).
65 Pablo de la Flor, ‘Mining and Economic Development in Peru’ (ReVista: Harvard Review of Latin America, 2014) https://revista.drclas.harvard.edu/book/mining-and-economic-development-peru accessed 28 September 2020.
66 Ibid.
67 Livia Wagner, ‘Organized Crime and Illegally Mined Gold in Latin America’ (The Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, April 2016) https://arcominero.infoamazonia.org/GIATOC-OC_Illegally-Mined-Gold-in-Latin-America-3c3f978eef80083bdd8780d7c5a21f1e.pdf accessed 13 October 2010; UNDP Peru (n 42).
68 Interview with former government official, 21 September 2020.
69 Arista (n 45); Blazquez-Lopez (n 63).
70 Ibid.
71 Ibid.
72 Ibid. The 380 soles bonus is one of the ‘bonos’, or monetary subsidies from the Peruvian government.
73 See Vila Benites and Bebbington (n 41); Manuel Calloquispe Flores, “Coronavirus en Perú: vivir en cuarentena, en la pobreza y sin beneficios en Madre de Dios,” El Comercio (March 31, 2020) https://elcomercio.pe/peru/madre-de-dios/coronavirus-en-peru-vivir-en-cuarentena-en-la-pobreza-y-sin-beneficios-en-madre-de-dios-fotos-noticia/?ref=ecr accessed 27 June 2020.
74 Ibid; Ramdoo (n 63).
75 See Vila Benites and Bebbington (n 41). Article 4.1 of Supreme Decree 044-2020-PCM lists the essential services and goods. Article 4.1(1) provided, as an exception, that in the case of productive and industrial sectors the Ministry of Economy and Finance (it was later amended for ‘the competent sector’), this may include additional activities, only if they do not affect the National State of Emergency and they comply with the required sanitary measures. On 17 March, by means of OFICIO 059-2020-EF/10.01, the Minister of Economy and Finance gave his consent to the proposal to include the mining sector in the exceptions provided in article 4.1(l) of Supreme Decree 044-2020-PCM, in order to guarantee the maintenance of critical operations with the minimum essential personnel, in safe, healthy and environmentally sound conditions.
76 Jessica Casey, ‘Great Panther COVID-19 Update’ (Global Mining Review, 7 May 2020) https://globalminingreview.com/mining/07052020/great-panther-covid-19-update accessed 28 September 2020.
77 Velt and Quijano Vallejos (n 33).
78 Of these, 216 are associated with Antamina Mining Company. The company had to stop operations following the identification of seven cases and the protest of miners. See Vila Benites and Bebbington (n 41). The massive Antamina mine, controlled by BHP and Glencore, was the largest mining outbreak in the country, and one of the worst reported worldwide. Marco Aquino, ‘Exclusive: Peru Miners Restart Pandemic-Hit Operations with Mass Testing, Isolating Workers’ (Reuters, 18 June 2020) https://reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-peru-mining-exclus/exclusive-peru-miners-restart-pandemic-hit-operations-with-mass-testing-isolating-workers-idUSKBN23P1L6 accessed 13 October 2020.
79 Servindi, ‘Minería y Petróleo: Las Consecuencias Devastadoras de los Privilegiados’ (24 May 2020) https://servindi.org/actualidad-noticias/24/05/2020/mineria-y-petroleo-las-consecuencias-devastadoras-de-los accessed 13 October 2020.
80 According to the Artisanal Gold Council,
Other commodities have seen prices decline as the world economy slows under the pressure of lockdowns and other restrictions on the movement of goods and people. Tin prices on the London Metal Exchange have fallen by 10% from beginning of March to beginning of May, cobalt by about 5% over the same period.
81 Velt and Quijano Vallejos (n 33); Blore, Kroll, and Telmer (n 2).
82 CNBC, ‘Gold Rises as New Coronavirus Cases Spur Lockdown Fears’ (18 June 2020) https://cnbc.com/2020/06/19/gold-markets-coronavirus-dollar-in-focus.html accessed 28 September 2020.
83 Velt and Quijano Vallejos (n 33).
84 Ibid; Blore, Kroll, and Telmer (n 2).
85 Velt and Quijano Vallejos (n 33).
86 Blore, Kroll, and Telmer (n 2); The Conversation, ‘Meet the Struggling Gold Miners Who Are Missing Out on Boom in the Precious Metal’ (21 May 2020) https://theconversation.com/meet-the-struggling-gold-miners-who-are-missing-out-on-boom-in-the-precious-metal-138997 accessed 13 October 2020.
87 Arista (n 45). However, with the re-opening of borders and economic reactivation, gold prices have since stabilised. Mona Avalos, ‘Updates on COVID-19 Impacts in PlanetGOLD Countries’ (planetGOLD, 21 December 2020) https://planetgold.org/updates-covid-19-impacts-planetgold-countries accessed 28 January 2021.
88 Kevin Telmer, ‘Impacts of COVID-19 on ASGM Communities’ (Artisanal Gold Council, 23 March 2020) https://artisanalgold.org/2020/03/possible-impacts-of-covid-19-on-asgm-communities/ accessed 28 September 2020.
89 Arista (n 45).
90 Arista (n 45); UNDP Peru (n 42).
91 Ibid.
92 UNDP Peru (n 42).
93 Helen Reid and Jeff Lewis, ‘Subsistence Miners Lose Out as Coronavirus Crushes Local Gold Prices’ (Reuters, 31 March 2020) https://reuters.com/article/health-coronavirus-mining-artisanal/subsistence-miners-lose-out-as-coronavirus-crushes-local-gold-prices-idUSL8N2BN670 accessed 11 August 2020.
94 Ibid.
95 UNDP Peru (n 42).
96 Telmer, ‘Impacts of COVID-19 on ASGM Communities’ (n 88).
97 ‘Emergency Action Needed’ (n 6).
98 Ramdoo (n 63).
99 Arista (n 45).
100 For a detailed description of how the Peruvian ASGM supply chain has been affected by COVID-19, see ibid.
101 Blore, Kroll, and Telmer (n 2).
102 Arista (n 45).
103 Ibid.
104 Ibid.
105 Ibid.
106 For a detailed description of the gold supply chain, see Lee Williams, ‘Exploring the Gold Supply Chain’ (Minespider, 14 March 2019) https://minespider.com/blog/exploring-the-gold-supply-chain.
107 Ibid.
108 Arista (n 45).
109 Ibid.
110 Ibid.
111 Ibid.
112 Ibid.
113 Nate Frierson, ‘Economic Informality and Gold Mining in Madre de Dios’ (Public Policy Peru, 1 April 2018) https://umdpolicyperu2016.wordpress.com/2018/04/01/economic-informality-and-gold-mining-in-madre-de-dios accessed 11 August 2020.
114 Patrick Wieland, ‘Hernando de Soto, the Lone Prospector and the Formalization of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining: A Case Study from La Rinconada, Peru’ (Environs: Environmental Law and Policy Journal 43(1), 28 February 2020 https://environs.law.ucdavis.edu/volumes/43/1/Articles/Wieland.pdf accessed 11 August 2020. Our research team interviewed an author and researcher specialising in the Peru ASM sector (21 August 2020), and he stated: ‘Illegal works within legal. The productive chain in Madre de Dios always has a link to the formality’ (translated from Spanish). As an example, he discussed the case of a large beer company in Peru. The company had a local distributor of beer in La Pampa, which sold over 1 million soles every month to the brothels in the area. That amounted to millions of soles every year, more than the budget of Peru's National Plan Against Human Trafficking. The only operation the distributor banked were the direct payments to the company. The rest of the transactions occurred outside the official banking system in Peru.
115 Arista (n 45).
116 Ibid.
117 UNDP Peru (n 42).
118 Arista (n 45).
119 Blore, Kroll, and Telmer (n 2).
120 Ibid; Telmer, ‘Impacts of COVID-19 on ASGM Communities’ (n 88).
121 Blore, Kroll, and Telmer (n 2).
122 Ibid.
123 ‘Emergency Action Needed’ (n 6); OECD, ‘OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas’ (April 2016) http://www.oecd.org/daf/inv/mne/mining.htm accessed 13 October 2020.
124 OECD, ‘OECD Due Diligence Guidance’ (n 123).
125 OECD, ‘A Global Standard Toward Responsible Mineral Supply Chains’ http://mneguidelines.oecd.org/Brochure_OECD-Responsible-Mineral-Supply-Chains.pdf accessed 13 October 2020.
126 Louis Maréchal, ‘A Global Initiative to End Support to Conflict Through Mineral Production and Trade’ (ECDPM, July 2017) https://ecdpm.org/great-insights/mining-for-development/global-initiative-end-support-conflict-mineral-production-trade accessed 13 October 2020.
127 Ibid.
128 Ibid.
129 OECD, ‘OECD Due Diligence Guidance’ (n 123); Maréchal (n 126); Extractives Hub, 'OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas: Summary' (April 2016) https://extractiveshub.org/resource/view/id/8856 accessed 13 October 2020, outlining: “The updated version clarifies that the Guidance provides a framework for detailed due diligence as a basis for responsible supply chain management of minerals, including tin, tantalum, tungsten and gold, as well as all other mineral resources. In addition to the 35 OECD Members, 8 non-Members, namely Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Lithuania, Morocco, Peru and Romania, adhered to the Council Recommendation.”
130 Saffron (n 34); see Yvette Sierra Praeli, ‘Forest Crimes Persist in Peru Following Indigenous Leaders’ Murder’ (Mongabay, 3 August 2020) https://news.mongabay.com/2020/08/forest-crimes-persist-in-peru-following-indigenous-leaders-murder accessed 13 October 2020.
131 Velt and Quijano Vallejos (n 33).
132 Ibid.
133 See ibid. The Peruvian author stated in an interview (21 August 2020):
Most of the problems of Madre de Dios are not in Madre de Dios, but in Lima (where policies and laws are made), Cusco, and Puno (two areas with high levels of poverty). Since there is no work or opportunity in Cusco or Puno, the people go to Madre de Dios to work in a short term and earn enough money to go back to their home region. As long as the Government does not fight directly against poverty; does not provide adequate schools; does not implement temporary work programs for young people during school vacations; and other initiatives that generate incentives for people to stay; people will continue to migrate to Madre de Dios. (translated from the original Spanish)
134 Telmer, ‘Impacts of COVID-19 on ASGM Communities’ (n 88).
135 Velt and Quijano Vallejos (n 33).
136 Ibid.
137 Wagner (n 67).
138 Reuters, ‘Peru Proposes State-Owned Bank Buys Gold from Artisanal Miners’ (7 September 2016) http://www.reuters.com/article/peru-gold/peru-proposes-state-owned-bank-buys-gold-from-artisanal-miners-idUSL1N1BJ1J6 accessed 28 September 2020. In an interview with a current government official, he highlights the difficulty of tracing the origin of gold ore, as so much of the gold extracted by informal or illegal miners is ‘laundered’ and legally traded. Interview with government official, 31 August 2020.
139 Yvette Sierra Praeli, ‘Peru Uncovers Organized Crime Network Laundering Illegally Mined Gold’ (Mongabay, 23 March 2020) https://news.mongabay.com/2020/03/peru-uncovers-organized-crime-network-laundering-illegally-mined-gold accessed 13 October 2020; Praeli, ‘Forest Crimes Persist in Peru’ (n 130).
140 Criminal groups continue to engage in illegal mining despite lockdown measures. Operations against illegal mining have been carried out in several regions of Peru since the pandemic began, including in Madre de Dios and the Huánuco regions. Criminal activity has also led to the death of at least one Indigenous leader and environmental defender. Praeli, ‘Forest Crimes Persist in Peru’ (n 130).
141 Wagner (n 67); Velt and Quijano Vallejos (n 33).
142 Mia Bristol, ‘Illegal Gold Mining in Peru’ (Panoramas, 13 May 2020) www.panoramas.pitt.edu/health-and-society/illegal-gold-mining-peru accessed 28 September 2020.
143 Interview with former government official, 1 August 2020.
144 Ibid.
145 Bnamericas, ‘MINEM: Mining Formalization Achieves Progress of 40%’ (14 October 2020) http://www.bnamericas.com/en/news/minem-mining-formalization-achieves-progress-of-40 accessed 14 October 2020.
146 Interview with former government official, 1 August 2020.
147 Bnamericas, ‘MINEM: Mining Formalization Achieves Progress of 40%’ (n 145).
148 Informal miners who are in the process of formalisation are registered in Peru's Integral Register of Mining Formalization (REINFO).
149 Legislative Decree 1336; Aubrey L. Langeland, Rebecca D. Hardin and Richard L. Neitzel, ‘Mercury Levels in Human Hair and Farmed Fish Near Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Communities in the Madre de Dios River Basin, Peru’ (14 March 2017) 14(302) International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28335439 accessed 11 August 2020.
150 Langeland, Hardin, and Neitzel (n 149).
151 Ibid.
152 Valeria Piñeiro, Jenny Thomas, and Pablo Elverdin, The Agricultural Sector as an Alternative to Illegal Mining in Peru: A Case Study of Madre de Dios (Discussion Paper No. 1582) (International Food Policy Research Institute, December 2016) http://www.ifpri.org/publication/agricultural-sector-alternative-illegal-mining-peru-case-study-madre-de-dios accessed 11 August 2020.
153 Saffron (n 34).
154 Ibid.
155 Ibid.
156 Karina Garay, Madre de Dios’ environmental prosecutor, has stated the withdrawal of police and military from Madre de Dios to enforce lockdowns and attend to the health crisis elsewhere has resulted in an uptick in illegal mining in the region. Ibid.
157 Ibid.
158 Ibid.
159 USAID, ‘Illegal Gold Mining: Peru’ http://www.usaid.gov/peru/our-work/illegal-gold-mining accessed 28 September 2020.
160 Mia Bristol, ‘Illegal Gold Mining in Peru’ (Panoramas, 13 May 2020) http://www.panoramas.pitt.edu/health-and-society/illegal-gold-mining-peru accessed 28 September 2020.
161 USAID (n 159).
162 Ibid.
163 Jorge Caballero Espejo and others, ‘Deforestation and Forest Degradation Due to Gold Mining in the Peruvian Amazon: A 34-Year Perspective’ (29 November 2018) Remote Sensing 10(1903) https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10121903 accessed 11 August 2020.
164 Ibid.
165 Ibid.
166 Ibid.
167 Interview with current government official involved in ASM formalisation, 13 July 2020.
168 Ibid.
169 Ibid.
170 Ibid.
171 Francesca García Delgado, ‘Madre de Dios: La Minería Ilegal de Oro No Da Tregua en Época de Pandemia’ (El Comercio, 2 June 2020) https://elcomercio-pe.cdn.ampproject.org/c/s/elcomercio.pe/peru/madre-de-dios/coronavirus-en-peru-madre-de-dios-la-mineria-ilegal-de-oro-no-da-tregua-en-epoca-de-pandemia-informe-noticia/?outputType=amp accessed 28 September 2020.
172 Saffron (n 34).
173 Ibid.
174 Wieland (n 114).
175 Nicole M. Smith, ‘“Our Gold Is Dirty, But We Want to Improve”: Challenges to Addressing Mercury Use in Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Peru’ (10 June 2019) Journal of Cleaner Production 222 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S095965261930767X?via%3Dihub accessed 11 August 2020.
176 Caballero Espejo and others (n 163).
177 Ramiro Escobar, ‘Los Alarmantes Niveles de Mercurio en Madre de Dios’ (Mongabay, 22 August https://es.mongabay.com/2018/08/peru-mercurio-en-madre-de-dios accessed 11 August 2020; MapX, ‘Mercury Emissions Estimates by Sector [kg], 2018’ (2018) https://app.mapx.org/static.html?project=MX-IY9-QCF-ILZ-UVO-07Y&views=MX-NUMTV-X97MG-7POZ1&lat=14.978&lng=16.762&z=1.5 accessed 11 August 2020; Yvonne Sierra Praeli, ‘Vilma Morales: “Bolivia Sería el País de Procedencia del Mercurio que llega a Perú”’ (Mongabay, 21 April 2020) https://es.mongabay.com/2020/04/peru-vilma-morales-mercurio accessed 11 August 2020. In our interview with one government official, he discussed that large quantities of mercury enter the country through Bolivia. In addition, Peru's tax authority, SUNAT (Superintendencia Nacional de Aduanas y de Administración Tributaria), has about 400 registered users of mercury, but that number does not capture the reality of the situation. It is estimated that Peru consumes 150–200 tons of mercury a year, and none of it is traceable. Interview with former government official, 1 August 2020.
178 Praeli, ‘Vilma Morales’ (n 177).
179 Langeland, Hardin, and Neitzel (n 149).
180 Ibid.
181 Smith (n 175).
182 Katy Ashe, ‘Elevated Mercury Concentrations in Humans of Madre de Dios, Peru’ (16 March 2020) PLoS ONE 7(3) https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0033305 accessed 11 August 2020.
183 Mitra Taj, ‘Meet the Women Who Scavenge for Gold at the Top of the World’ (Reuters, 26 June 2020) https://widerimage.reuters.com/story/meet-the-women-who-scavenge-for-gold-at-the-top-of-the-world accessed 11 August 2020.
184 According to the Global Nature Fund. Ibid.
185 Kenneth Davis, ‘Monitoring the Impacts of COVID-19 on Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining’ (planetGOLD, 1 April 2020) www.planetgold.org/monitoring-impacts-covid-19-artisanal-and-small-scale-gold-mining accessed 28 September 2020.
186 Kevin Telmer and Marieke Kroll, ‘COVID-19 and ASGM Communities – An Early Look at the Crisis’ (Artisanal Gold Council, 23 March 2020) www.artisanalgold.org/covid-19-and-asgm-communities-early-look-crisis accessed 13 October 2020.
187 For example, in Zimbabwe, COVID-19 has reduced mercury trade and pushed prices to up to $10 USD per teaspoon. See Pact Zimbabwe, ‘Implications of the COVID-19 and the Recent Lockdown Lift on the Zimbabwean Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) Sector’ (Mining Zimbabwe, 22 May 2020) https://miningzimbabwe.com/implications-of-the-covid-19-and-the-recent-lockdown-lift-on-the-zimbabwean-artisanal-and-small-scale-mining-asm-sector accessed 13 October 2020.
188 This has been the case for multi-stakeholder initiatives in Zimbabwe, for example. See ibid.
189 ‘Emergency Action Needed’ (n 6).
190 Ibid.
191 Ibid.
192 Ibid.
193 Solidaridad, ‘Pallaqueras’ Assistance Platform Provides Humanitarian Aid to Women Miners in Peru’ (19 October 2020) www.solidaridadnetwork.org/news/pallaqueras’-assistance-platform-provides-humanitarian-aid-to-women-miners-in-peru accessed 1 February 2020.
194 Wieland (n 114).
195 Georg Petersen, Mining and Metallurgy in Ancient Perú, p. 68, The Geological Society of America (2010).
196 Solidaridad, ‘Pallaqueras’ Assistance Platform Provides Humanitarian Aid’ (n 193).
197 Solidaridad, ‘You Can Contribute to Alleviate COVID-19 Impact on Small-Scale Miners’ (28 July 2020) www.solidaridadnetwork.org/news/you-can-contribute-to-alleviate-covid-19-impact-on-small-scale-miners accessed 11 October 2020.
198 Ibid.
199 Ibid.
200 Celine Salcedo-La Viña, Ruchika Singh, and Natalie Elwell, ‘Rural Women Must Be at the Heart of COVID-19 Response and Recovery’ (World Resources Institute, 21 September 2020) http://www.wri.org/blog/2020/09/rural-women-must-be-heart-covid-19-response-and-recovery?utm_campaign=wridigest&utm_source=wridigest-2020-10-6&utm_medium=email&utm_content=readmore accessed 13 October 2020. Women in Peru are often barred from formal work within the mines because of traditional Andean beliefs about underground mining. See Wieland (n 114); Solidaridad, ‘You Can Contribute to Alleviate COVID-19 Impact’ (n 197).
201 Salcedo-La Viña, Singh and Elwell (n 200).
202 Ibid.
203 Solidaridad, ‘You Can Contribute to Alleviate COVID-19 Impact’ (n 197).
204 Ibid.
205 Wagner (n 67).
206 Ibid.
207 Ibid.
208 Salcedo-La Viña, Singh and Elwell (n 200).
209 US Embassy in Peru, ‘COVID-19 Information’ https://pe.usembassy.gov/covid-19-information/ accessed 11 October 2020.
210 Ibid.
211 Ibid.
212 Ministry of Education, ‘El Año Escolar 2021 Se Iniciará el 15 de Marzo en las Escuelas Públicas’ (17 December 2020) www.gob.pe/institucion/minedu/noticias/321316-el-ano-escolar-2021-se-iniciara-el-15-de-marzo-en-las-escuelas-publicas accessed 28 January 2021.
213 ‘Emergency Action Needed’ (n 6).
214 Blazquez-Lopez (n 63).
215 Ibid.
216 Coordinadora de las Organizaciones Indígenas de la Cuenca Amazónica, ‘Impacto del COVID-19 en los Pueblos Indígenas de la Cuenca Amazónica’ (10 October 2020) https://drive.google.com/file/d/1isGrREHrf1il9ZejJ1APr2fo0Cr1B7qs/view?fbclid=IwAR1AOqQPgsFiH-VvrSw-ZWFDYb3mIanVTsxlfGiTpsDityJvDmy7P8kLpyQ accessed 15 October 2020.
217 Coordinadora de las Organizaciones Indígenas de la Cuenca Amazónica, ‘Impacto del COVID-19 en los Pueblos Indígenas de la Cuenca Amazónica’ (01 September 2020).
218 (Coordinadora de las Organizaciones Indígenas de la Cuenca Amazónica (n 216). Legislative Decree 189 establishes actions for the protection of indigenous or native peoples in the framework of the Health Emergency declared by COVID-19.
219 Saffron (n 34). This spread is happening across the Amazon to Indigenous tribes. In Brazil, COVID-19 likely entered the Yanomami indigenous territory through illegal miners. Velt and Quijano Vallejos (n 33).
220 Ibid.
221 Indigenous leader Arbildo Meléndez Grandes of Peru's Huánuco region was murdered earlier this year, a sign that, despite lockdown measures, criminal groups continue to engage in environmental and human rights violations against Indigenous peoples and their lands. Praeli, ‘Forest Crimes Persist in Peru’ (n 130).
222 Quoting a report from the Civil Society Platform on Business and Human Rights (la Plataforma de la Sociedad Civil sobre Empresas y Derechos Humanos). Servindi (n 79).
223 ‘Emergency Action Needed’ (n 6).
224 Wieland (n 114).
225 See ‘Emergency Action Needed’ (n 6).
226 Wieland (n 114).
227 Ibid.
228 Under Peruvian law, informal mining may be regulated to become formalised through a six-step process that includes submitting an affidavit of intent, negotiating an exploitation agreement with a mining concession owner, obtaining surface rights, filing a water authorization, conducting a ‘rapid environmental impact assessment’ and obtaining a licence to operate. Wieland (n 114). Interviews with the ASM author (21 August 2020) and government official (21 September 2020) revealed that the lack of success in mining formalisation may in part be because the legislation enacted for mining formalisation was made from the central government, without a view of the realities and on-the-ground issues surrounding ASM operations in Peru.
229 Wieland (n 114).
230 For more information on the social and environmental aspects of the proposed mining law, see Mining Journal, ‘Peru Mining Law Changes to Respond to Social Need’ (5 September 2019) www.mining-journal.com/leadership/news/1370897/peru-mining-law-changes-to-respond-to-social-need accessed 14 October 2020; Bnamericas, ‘Peru's New Mining Law Targets High Social, Environmental and Economic Standards’ (23 August 2019) www.bnamericas.com/en/interviews/perus-new-mining-law-targets-high-social-environmental-and-economic-standards accessed 14 October 2020.
231 Vila Benites and Bebbington (n 41).
232 This decree amended Article 7.2(b) and (c) of Supreme Decree 001-2020-EM, which established provisions related to Peru's Integral Register of Mining Formalization (REINFO), the official database wherein artisanal and small-scale miners are registered as they proceed through the process of formalisation.
233 Supreme Decree 015-2020-EM has impacted the timeline by which ASM workers seeking formalisation may submit their required environmental management instrument (IGAFOM).
234 The extension also applies to the requirement of having a registration number (called an RUC) at SUNAT (the Tax Authority).
235 This was an increase from 8010 confirmed COVID-19 cases and 230 deaths a mere three months earlier, in October 2020. US Embassy in Zimbabwe, ‘COVID-19 Information’ https://zw.usembassy.gov/covid-19-information-2 accessed 28 January 2021.
236 Donald Nyarota, allAfrica, ‘Zimbabwe: Gold Price Increase Will Not Curb Illicit Trade’ (1 June 2020) https://allafrica.com/stories/202006010570.html accessed 10 October 2020.
237 Ibid.
238 Ibid.
239 Ibid.
240 Mining Zimbabwe, ‘ZELA Conducts Research on Formalisation of Artisanal Miners’ (29 June 2020) https://miningzimbabwe.com/zela-conducts-research-on-formalisation-of-artisanal-miners accessed 10 October 2020.
241 Ibid.
242 Pact Zimbabwe (n 187).
243 Ibid.
244 Ibid.
245 Ibid.
246 Ibid; Zimbabwe was one of the first signatories to the Minamata Convention in 2013, but the country has yet to ratify the convention. See United Nations Environment Programme, ‘Parties and Signatories’ (n.d.) http://www.mercuryconvention.org/Countries/Parties/tabid/3428/language/en-US/Default.aspx accessed 09 October 2020.
247 Pact Zimbabwe (n 187).
248 Ibid.
249 Ibid.
250 Ibid.
251 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, ‘COVID-19 in Colombia’, https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/notices/warning/coronavirus-colombia. accessed 15 October 2020.
252 This is a 100% increase in confirmed cases and a nearly 200% increase in deaths from 15 October 2020 (at that time, statistics showed 930,159 confirmed cases and 28,306 deaths). CoronaTracker, ‘Colombia Overview’, www.coronatracker.com/country/colombia accessed 28 January 2021.
253 Alliance for Responsible Mining, ‘Impact of COVID-19 on Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining’, www.responsiblemines.org/en/2020/04/impact-covid-19-artisanal-small-scale-mining accessed 15 October 2020.
254 Ibid; J. Seccatore and others, ‘An Estimation of the Artisanal Small-Scale Production of Gold in the World,’ (2014) 496 Science of the Total Environment 662–667.
255 MITD-Lab, ‘Building Inclusive Economy with Small Scale Miners – Colombia’ https://d-lab.mit.edu/innovation-practice/inclusive-regional-economies/building-inclusive-economy-small-scale-miners accessed 15 October 2020.
256 Alliance for Responsible Mining (n 253).
257 Ibid.
258 Ibid.
259 Ibid.
260 Ibid.
261 Swiss Better Gold Initiative, ‘COVID-19: 100,000 Dollars Emergency Support for Colombian Small-Scale Miners’ (6 May 2020) www.swissbettergold.ch/new-at-sbga/covid-19-100000-dollars-emergency-support-colombian-small-scale-miners accessed 15 October 2020.
262 Alliance for Responsible Mining (n 253).
263 Ibid.
264 Ibid.
265 Departamento Nacional de Planeación, Plan Nacional de Desarrollo 2018–2022: Pacto por Colombia, pacto por la equidad. Resumen (2019) p. 147. Bogotá DC, Colombia https://colaboracion.dnp.gov.co/CDT/Prensa/Resumen-PND2018-2022-final.pdf.
266 Ibid.
267 Agencia Nacional de Minería, ‘ANM entrega avances de legalidad minera en seis departamentos’, República de Colombia (2019) www.anm.gov.co/?q=anm-entrega-avances-de-legalidad-minera-en-seis-departamentos.
268 Departamento Nacional de Planeación (n 265), pp. 701–702.
269 Portafolio, ‘160 familias mineras pasan a la formalización en California (2020) www.portafolio.co/mas-contenido/legalizacion-de-mineros-en-california-santander-544699 accessed 15 October 2020.
270 Plataforma Integral de Minería a Pequeña Escala – PIM, Colombia. Nuevo Ministro De Minas Y Energía: ‘La Meta Es Formalizar a 27 Mil Mineros’, Lima, Perú (2020) www.plataformaintegraldemineria.org/es/noticias/colombia-nuevo-ministro-de-minas-y-energia-la-meta-es-formalizar-27-mil-mineros accessed 15 October 2020.
271 These numbers are an increase from 139,141 confirmed cases and 8377 deaths as of 15 October 2020. CoronaTracker, ‘Bolivia Overview’, www.coronatracker.com/country/bolivia accessed 28 January 2021.
272 US Embassy in Bolivia, ‘COVID-19 Information’ https://bo.usembassy.gov/covid-19-information accessed 15 October 2020.
273 United Nations Industrial Development Organization – UNIDO, ‘The Government of the Plurinational State of Bolivia and UNIDO Take First Steps to Provide Technical Assistance to More than 10,000 Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Miners’ (18 August 2020) https://www.unido.org/news/government-plurinational-state-bolivia-and-unido-take-first-steps-provide-technical-assistance-more-10000-artisanal-and-small-scale-gold-miners accessed 10 October 2020.
274 Cumbre del Sajama SA & Solidaridad, ‘Impact of Coronavirus (COVID-19) on Artisanal and Small Scale Mining in Bolivia (2020) www.plataformaintegraldemineria.org/sites/default/files/2020-06/Diagnostico%20COVID%20mineria%20artesanal%20Bolivia_INGLES%20%282%29-min.pdf accessed 15 October 2020.
275 Ibid.
276 Ibid.
277 Ibid.
278 Ibid.
279 UNIDO (n 273).
280 Ibid.
281 Solidaridad, ‘You Can Contribute to Alleviate COVID-19 Impact’ (n 197).
282 Ibid.
283 State Secretariat for Economic Affairs – SECO, ‘Better Gold Initiative for Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Fact Sheet’ (2020) www.seco-cooperation.admin.ch/dam/secocoop/de/dokumente/themen/handel/factsheet-bgi-for-asm.pdf.download.pdf/Factsheet%20Better%20Gold%20Initiative%20for%20Artisanal%20and%20Small-Scale%20Mining.pdf accessed 15 October 2020.
284 Ibid.
285 SBGA – Swiss Better Gold Association, ‘COVID-19: Better Gold Initiative Provides Emergency Support to Bolivian Gold Miners’ (2020) www.swissbettergold.ch/new-at-sbga/covid-19-better-gold-initiative-provides-emergency-support-bolivian-gold-miners accessed 15 October 2020.
286 As of 14 October 2020, Chile reported 485,372 confirmed cases. US Embassy in Chile, ‘COVID-19 in Chile: Information for American Citizens’ (28 January 2021) https://cl.usembassy.gov/covid-19-information accessed 28 January 2020.
287 ENAMI, ‘Sobre ENAMI’ http://www.enami.cl/SobreEnami accessed 14 October 2020.
288 Atacama Noticias, ‘ENAMI Reinforces Its Commitment to Small-Scale Mining and Highlights the Execution of Promotion Programs’ (30 June 2020) www.atacamanoticias.cl/2020/06/30/enami-refuerza-compromiso-con-la-pequena-mineria-y-destaca-ejecucion-de-programas-de-fomento accessed 14 October 2020.
289 Constanza Espinoza and others, ‘Chilean Artisanal Mining: A Gambling Scenario’ Apr./June 2020 73(2) REM, Int. Eng. J. Ouro Preto (e-pub 17 April 2020) https://doi.org/10.1590/0370-44672019730067.
290 Ibid.
291 ENAMI (n 287).
292 Ibid.
293 Arista (n 45).
294 Bnamericas, Chile's Mining Industry Struggling to Contain COVID-19 (20 July 2020) www.bnamericas.com/en/news/chiles-mining-industry-struggling-to-contain-covid-19 accessed 15 October 2020; Atacama Noticias (n 288).
295 Atacama Noticias (n 288).
296 Ibid.
297 Arista (n 45).
298 Ibid.
299 planetGOLD, ‘Update on COVID Impacts on ASGM and planetGOLD Peru’ (December 2020) www.planetgold.org/sites/default/files/2020-12/planetGOLD%20Peru%20update%20on%20COVID%20impacts%20on%20ASGM%20and%20planetGOLD%20dec2020.pdf accessed 1 February 2020.
300 Ibid.
301 Ibid.
302 See Mtisi and others (n 37).
303 See ibid.
304 See ibid.
305 See ibid.
306 Solidaridad, ‘You Can Contribute to Alleviate COVID-19 Impact’ (n 197).
307 Ibid.
308 Ibid.
309 Ibid.
310 Telmer, ‘Impacts of COVID-19 on ASGM Communities’ (n 88).
311 UNDP Peru (n 42).
312 Ibid.
313 According to Kevin Telmer at the Artisanal Gold Council, ‘Aiming for pre-COVID-19 [price] margins would mean that livelihoods would be less impacted by collapsing markets and impacts would be limited mostly to production decreases due to shutdowns or other restrictions on the ability to work’. Telmer, ‘Impacts of COVID-19 on ASGM Communities’ (n 88).
314 Arista (n 45).
315 See Telmer, ‘Impacts of COVID-19 on ASGM Communities’ (n 88).
316 Ibid.
317 Colombia made mercury illegal, thereby forcing miners to eliminate mercury from use at beneficiation plants.
318 UN Environment Programme, ‘Towards a Mercury-Free Future in Mongolia and the Philippines’ (5 April 2019) www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/press-release/towards-mercury-free-future-mongolia-and-philippines accessed 14 October 2020.
319 Jacklyn Belo-Enricoso and Shyne S. Catedral, ‘Women and COVID-19 in an Artisanal Gold Mining Community: Gender Impacts in the Philippines’ (Artisanal Gold Council, 14 May 2020) www.artisanalgold.org/2020/05/women-and-covid-19-the-philippines accessed 14 October 2020; Salcedo-La Viña, Singh and Elwell (n 200).
320 Ibid.
321 Ibid.
322 Belo-Enricoso and Catedral (n 319).
323 Blore, Kroll, and Telmer (n 2).
324 Telmer, ‘Impacts of COVID-19 on ASGM Communities’ (n 88).
325 Arista (n 45).
326 UNDP Peru (n 42).
327 Peru Legislative Decree 1336, Art. 21.
328 UNDP Peru (n 42).
329 Bnamericas, ‘MINEM: Mining Formalization Achieves Progress of 40%’ (n 145).
330 ‘Emergency Action Needed’ (n 6).
331 Ibid.
332 Some government officials suggest formalisation reform should include formalising the ASM operations themselves.
333 Arista (n 45).
334 Supreme Decree No. 018-2018-EM for the first time recognised these workers as part of the formal gold production chain. Plataforma Integral de Mineria a Pequeña Escala, ‘The Potential of Gold Marketed by Puno Pallaqueras and Cachorreros’ (21 January 2019) www.plataformaintegraldemineria.org/en/news/opinion-potential-gold-marketed-puno-pallaqueras-and-cachorreros accessed 1 February 2021.
335 UNDP Peru (n 42).
336 Ibid.
337 Ibid.
338 Solidaridad, ‘You Can Contribute to Alleviate COVID-19 Impact’ (n 197).
339 World Gold Council, ‘Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining’ (n.d.) www.gold.org/about-gold/gold-supply/responsible-gold/artisanal-and-small-scale-gold-mining accessed 11 October 2020.
340 OECD, ‘OECD Due Diligence’ (n 123).
341 OECD, ‘A Global Standard Toward Responsible Mineral Supply Chains’ (n 125).
342 Ibid.
343 Blore, Kroll, and Telmer (n 2).
344 Shyne Catedral, Michelle Manza and Abigail Ocate, ‘Philippines: The Artisanal Mining Sector during the COVID-19 Pandemic’ (Artisanal Gold Council, 13 April 2020) www.artisanalgold.org/2020/04/philippines-protecting-the-artisanal-mining-sector-during-the-covid-19-pandemic accessed 14 October 2020.