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Abstract
In this article I introduce the notion of “borrowing scenery” or jiejing (Jp. shakkei) from Ji Cheng’s 1635 treatise Yuanye (The Craft of Gardens). Shakkei became highly influential in the west through Teiji Itoh’s popular book Space and Illusion in the Japanese Garden (1965). I firstly use an analysis of the 1652 Geppa-rō tea pavilion at Katsura Rikyū as a case study that satisfies Itoh’s model of shakkei. This allows me to propose an ontological foil to Itoh’s model that draws on the Ming-era discourse of Shao Bao (1460–1527), contemporary Chinese scholarship on borrowing as well as David Bohm’s concepts of unfolding and enfolding from his metaphysics of the implicate and explicate orders. I conclude the article with a novel formalisation of what I call an unfolding architecture and enfolding landscape at the Geppa-rō pavilion.
Notes
1 Jin Feng, “Jing, The Concept of Scenery in Texts on the Traditional Chinese Garden: An Initial Exploration,” Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes 18, no. 4 (1998), 355.
2 Jiaji Zhang, Yuan ye quan shi (Taiyuan: Shanxi renmin chubanshe, 1993), 325.
3 Toshirō Inaji, The Garden as Architecture, trans. Pamela Virgilio (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1998), 109.
4 Wybe Kuitert, “Borrowing Scenery and the Landscape that Lends—The Final Chapter of Yuanye,” Journal of Landscape Architecture 10, no. 2 (2015), 32.
5 Stanislaus Fung, “Here and There in Yuan ye,” Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes 19, no. 1 (1999): 36–45.
6 Teiji Itoh, Space and Illusion in the Japanese Garden (New York: Weatherhill, 1973); Tadahiko Higuchi, The Visual and Spatial Structure of Landscapes, trans. Charles Terry (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1983); and Norris Brock Johnson, “Geomancy, Sacred Geometry, and the Idea of a Garden: Tenryu-ji temple, Kyoto, Japan,” Journal of Garden History 9, no. 1 (1989): 1–19.
7 See further: Günter Nitschke, Japanese Gardens (Cologne: Taschen, 2003); and Kuitert, “Borrowing Scenery and the Landscape that Lends.”
8 Jiro Takei and Marc P. Keane (trans.), Sakuteiki (Tokyo: Tuttle Publishing, 2008), 157.
9 Stanislaus Fung, “Self, Scene and Action: The Final Chapter of Yuan ye,” in Landscapes of Memory and Experience, ed. Jan Birksted (London: Spon Press, 2000), 129.
10 Fung, “Self, Scene and Action,” 133.
11 Bruno Taut, Das japanische Haus und sein Leben (Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, 2017). See also Sandra Kaji-O’Grady, “Authentic Japanese architecture after Bruno Taut: The Problem of Eclecticism,” Fabrications: The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand 11, no. 2 (2014), 2–3.
12 Kuitert, “Borrowing Scenery and the Landscape that Lends,” 32.
13 David Bohm, Wholeness and the Implicate Order (London: Routledge, 2002).
14 Yasuo Yuasa, Overcoming Modernity Synchronicity and Image-Thinking (New York: State University of New York Press, 2009).
15 Fung, “Here and There in Yuan ye,” 40.
16 Chongzhou Chen, On Chinese Gardens (Shanghai: Tongji University Press, 1983).
17 Fung, “Here and There in Yuan ye,” 43.
18 Wybe Kuitert, Themes in the History of Japanese Garden Art (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2002), 174.
19 Haruo Shirane, Japan and the Culture of the Four Seasons (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012), 169–70.
20 Shirane, Japan and the Culture of the Four Seasons, 40–41.
21 Nicholas Fiévé, “The Genius Loci of Katsura: Literary Landscapes in Early Modern Japan,” Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes 37, no. 2 (2017), 143.
22 Sano Shōkei, Nigiwaigusa (Tokyo: Benseisha, 1973).
23 Originally there was also a fifth tea house called Chikurin-tei (Bamboo Grove Pavilion) on the southern tip of the site on the banks of the Katsura river which has since been lost. See Kyōto Shinbun Shuppan Center, Katsura Rikyū Shugakuin Rikyū (Kyōto: Kyōto Shinbun Shuppan Center, 2004), 62.
24 Sasaki Sanmi, Chadō the Way of Tee, trans. Shaun McCabe and Iwasaki Satoko (Tokyo: Tuttle, 2005), 547.
25 Fiévé, “The Genius Loci of Katsura,” 135.
26 Ivo Smits, “The Way of the Literati: Chinese Learning and Literary Practice in Mid-Heian Japan,” in Heian Japan, Centers and Peripheries (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2007), 119.
27 A. C. Graham (trans.), Poems of the West Lake: Translations from the Chinese (London: Wellsweep, 1990), 19.
28 Elisabetta Porcu, Pure Land Buddhism in Modern Japanese Culture (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 186.
29 Isao Kumakura, “Sen no Rikyū: Inquiries into His Life and Tea,” in Tea in Japan, ed. Paul Varley and Isao Kumakura, trans. Paul Varley (Honolulu: University of Hawai’I Press, 1989), 62.
30 Yasuhiko Murai, “The Development of Chanoyu,” in Tea in Japan, ed. Varley and Kumakura, 6.
31 Hamamoto Soshun, Tekisuian: Chanoyu Kanwa (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1984).
32 Norinaga Motoori, The Poetics of Motoori Norinaga: A Hermeneutical Journey, trans. Michael F. Marra (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2007), 173.
33 Nitschke, Japanese Gardens, 150.
34 Mitsuo Inoue and Hiroshi Watanabe, Space in Japanese Architecture (London: Weatherill, 2009), 103–104.
35 Stuart D. B. Picken, Historical Dictionary of Shinto (Toronto: The Scarecrow Press, 2011), 77.
36 Miriam Wattles, The Life and Afterlives of Hanabusa Itchō, Artist-Rebel of Edo (Boston: Brill, 2013), 57.
37 Shirane, Japan and the Culture of the Four Seasons, 166.
38 Seiko Goto and Takahiro Naka, Japanese Gardens: Symbolism and Design (London: Routledge, 2015), 26.
39 Yuan Zhang, Keita Yamaguchi, and Masashi Kawasaki, “A Spatial Analysis of the Pond Design to Create Okufukasa, A Sense of Depth: A Case Study of Katsura Imperial Villa,” Landscape Research 43 (2018): 380–99.
40 Itoh, Space and Illusion in the Japanese Garden, 16.
41 Arne Kallard, “Culture in Japanese Nature,” in Asian Perceptions of Nature, ed. Ole Bruun and Arne Kallard (London: Routledge, 1995), 243–-257.
42 S. M. Eisenstadt, “The Japanese Attitude to Nature: A Framework of Basic Ontological Conception,” in Asian Perceptions of Nature, ed. Bruun and Kallard, 194.
43 Bohm, Wholeness and the Implicate Order.
44 Yasuo Yuasa, Overcoming Modernity Synchronicity and Image-Thinking (New York: State University of New York Press, 2009), 122.
45 Bohm, Wholeness and the Implicate Order, 14.
46 Gérard Deledalle, Charles S. Peirce’s Philosophy of Signs (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001), 18.
47 See: Stanislaus Fung, “Movement and Stillness in Ming Writings on Gardens,” in Landscape Design and the experience of Motion, ed. Michael Conan (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 2003), 243–62. See also Chongzhou Chen, On Chinese Gardens (Shanghai: Tongji University Press, 1983).
48 Fung, “Movement and Stillness in Ming Writings on Gardens,” 243.
49 Fung, “Movement and Stillness in Ming Writings on Gardens,” 243.
50 Fung, “Movement and Stillness in Ming Writings on Gardens,” 244.
51 Fung, “Movement and Stillness in Ming Writings on Gardens,” 249.
52 Fung, “Movement and Stillness in Ming Writings on Gardens,” 249.
53 Bohm, Wholeness and the Implicate Order, 22.
54 Regarding the auditory domain of shakkei and its function in Japanese garden design see: Michael Fowler, “Hearing a shakkei: The semiotics of the audible in a Japanese stroll garden,” Semiotica 197 (2013): 101–17.
55 Zhang, Yuan ye quan shi, 326.
56 Bohm, Wholeness and the Implicate Order, 257.
57 Feng, “Jing, The Concept of Scenery in Texts on the Traditional Chinese Garden,” 350.
58 Fung, “Self, Scene and Action,” 131.
59 Fung, “Self, Scene and Action,” 141.
60 Zhang, Yuan ye quan shi, 325.
61 Bohm, Wholeness and the Implicate Order, 14.
62 David Bohm and F. David Peat, Science, Order, and Creativity (New York: Taylor & Francis, 2010), 23.
63 Fung, “Self, Scene and Action,” 134.
64 Bohm and Peat, Science, Order, and Creativity, 157.
65 Bohm and Peat, Science, Order, and Creativity, 20.
66 Fung, “Self, Scene and Action,” 134.
67 Zhang, Yuan ye quan shi.
68 Fung, “Here and There in Yuan ye,” 43.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Michael Fowler
Michael Fowler is an independent researcher whose work explores techniques for the mapping, analysis and design of exemplary sound-spaces. In particular, he has examined the auditory semiotics of Japanese garden design, concepts of sound and listening in architecture and landscape architecture, the music of Karlheinz Stockhausen, and the utilisation of techniques from mathematics and knowledge representation for modelling indeterminate musical spaces in the scores of John Cage. His artistic practice includes the design of multi-channel sound installations that have been staged in Australia, China and Japan.