From ethnic segregation to equal political status: the Making of the concept of citizenship in early modern China

ABSTRACT

‘Political equality’ is regarded as inherent to the nature of citizenship, but the traditional Chinese concept of ‘ethnic segregation’ runs counter to this idea. A shift away from this concept has been a prerequisite for the development of modern Chinese citizenship. In the mid-18th century, the Qing Dynasty was at the point of transition from tradition to modernity. Hua – Yi segregation put the Qing rulers under great pressure due to their origins as an ethnic minority. Confucian intellectuals such as Zeng Jing used this concept to challenge the political legitimacy of the Qing Dynasty, and rulers such as Yongzheng took advantage of this opportunity to replace the conception of ethnic segregation with that of equal political status through political debate and mass education. The concept of Hua – Yi segregation, which had lasted for nearly 3,000 years in China, then gradually faded away. The development of the new approach thus laid the foundation for the acceptance of the Western concept of citizenship. Chinese citizenship therefore has both internal and external cultural roots. The development of citizenship in China shows the importance of ‘after Orientalism’ in citizenship studies.

KEYWORDS:

• citizenship conception
• Hua–Yi segregation
• equal political status
• Zeng Jing-Lv Liuliang Literary Inquisition
• Awakening by the Great Truth

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1. The First Opium War took place in 1840, when the British navy invaded and defeated China. China then gradually became a colony of the West. The First Opium War is typically regarded as the turning point of China’s transformation from a traditional to a modern country.

2. The Mongolians lived in the northern part of China and were also regarded as belonging to the Yi category. The Mongolians established the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368). During Mongolian rule, the Hua were regarded as the lowest class and were cruelly suppressed.

3. The Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) came before the Qing and was founded by the Hua group. After the collapse of the Ming and the founding of the Qing, many Ming descendants took up the slogan ‘reverse Qing and restore Ming’.

4. ‘Kangqian Shengshi’, under the rule of Emperors Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong, was regarded as one of the most prosperous periods in Chinese history. It lasted from the end of the 17^th century to the beginning of the 19^th century and is known as ‘High Qing’ in the West.

5. Confucius was the founder of Confucianism, which served as orthodoxy from the 1^st century in China. His influence led to him being regarded as a ‘sage’ in China.

6. The five ethics (wu lun) are regarded as the basis of people’s lives in traditional China and have established the hierarchies between different social strata. These refer to the ethics between emperor and subjects (junchen), between fathers and sons (fuzi), between husband and wife (fufu), between brothers (xiongdi), and between friends (pengyou).

7. The Song Dynasty was divided into the Northern (961–1127) and the Southern Song Dynasties (1127–1279). China was not a united country in these periods, and various ethnic minorities founded regimes, such as Qie Dan, Jin, and Dang Xiang. The Song areas were often invaded by these regimes during this time. The origin of the Manchu can be traced back to Jin, and Yue Fei’s resistance to Jin’s invasion occurred in this period.

8. Mencius (c. 372–289 BC) was regarded as the ‘second sage’ (ya sheng) in China and contributed to the establishment of Confucianism.

9. King Shun (shun di) and King Wen (wen wang) were two of the earliest kings in ancient China. According to legend, they ruled during very prosperous and civilised periods, which were regarded as ideal by later Chinese dynasties.

10. Up until the end of the 18^th century, the concept of Hua – Yi segregation continued to inspire secret societies intent on overthrowing the Qing Dynasty, such as the White Lotus Religion (bailian jiao). As recently as the beginning of the 20^th century, Dr Sun Yat-Sen drew on the concept (using the slogan ‘drive out the Tartars’) to resist Manchu rule.