The end of the cold war in Southern Africa: the fall of the nuclear wall

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Notes

¹ U. Engel, F. Hadler, and M. Middell, ‘Introduction’, in F. Hadler, M. Middell, and U. Engel (eds.), 1989 As A Global Moment, (Leipzig: Leipziger Universitätsverlag, 2015): 15.

² M. Malan, My life with the South African Defence Force, (Pretoria: Protea Boekhuis, 2006), 216; J. Shearar, ‘Denuclearization in Africa: The South African Dimension’, Disarmament 16, 2 (1993): 171-186; P. Liberman, ‘The Rise and Fall of the South African Bomb’, International Security 26, 2 (2001): 56; D. Albright, ‘South Africa and the Affordable Bomb’, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 50, 4 (1994): 37–48, 56; J. Richelson, Spying on the Bomb, (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2006), 283.

³ Chris Saunders & Sue Onslow, ‘The Cold War and Southern Africa, 1976-1990’, in M.P. Leffler & O.A. Westad (eds.), The Cambridge History of the Cold War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 240-241.

⁴ Chris Saunders, ‘The Role of the United Nations in the Independence of Namibia,’ History Compass 5, 3 (2007): 740-742.

⁵ H. Steyn, R. van der Walt and J. van Loggerenberg, Armament and Disarmament: South Africa’s Nuclear Weapons Experience, (Pretoria: Network Publishers, 2003): 97-99.

⁶ Herman Gilliomee, The Last Afrikaner Leaders: A Supreme Test of Power (Cape Town, 2012), 280; Anna-Mart van Wyk & Robin Möser, ‘1989 in South(ern) Africa: The Fall of the Nuclear Wall’, Comparativ 29, 5 (2019): 52.

⁷ W. Stumpf, ‘South Africa’s Nuclear Weapons Program: From Deterrence to Dismantlement,’ Arms Control Today, 25 (December 1995/January 1996): 6; Shearer, ‘Denuclearization in Africa’; Malan, My Life with the SA Defence Force, 218; BBC, ‘On this Day, 11 February: 1990, Freedom for Nelson Mandela,’

http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/11/newsid_2539000/2539947.stm.

⁸ N. von Wielligh & L. Von Wielligh-Steyn, The Bomb: South Africa’s Nuclear Weapons Program, (Pretoria: Litera, 2016), 216.f

⁹ South African Diplomatic Archives (SADA), File: NPT-IAEA Agreement/Negotiations on Full-Scope Safeguards, Memorandum: ‘A balanced approach to the NPT - ARMSCOR/AEC concerns viewed from a DFA standpoint,’ September 1988.

¹⁰ SADA, NPT-IAEA, File: Agreement/Negotiations on Full-Scope Safeguards, Memorandum, Herbert Beukes to Richard Carter, ‘Main points arising from Luncheon on 14 November 1989,’ 17 November 1989.

¹¹ Steyn et al. Armament and Disarmament, 37.

¹² Uri Friedman, ‘Why One President Gave Up His Country’s Nukes’, The Atlantic, 9 September 2017.

¹³ F.W. de Klerk, The Last Trek – A New Beginning (New York, 1999), 274; Shearer, ‘Denuclearization in Africa’; Malan, My life with the SA Defence Force, 218.

¹⁴ Von Wielligh & Von Wielligh-Steyn, The Bomb, 276.

¹⁵ SADA, File: NPT-IAEA, Agreement/Negotiations on full-scope safeguards, Memorandum: Herbert Beukes to Richard Carter, ‘Main points arising from Luncheon on 14 November 1989,’ 17 November 1989.

¹⁶ RF Botha interview with Sue Onslow, 15 July 2008, 10-13. Available at https://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/5806/2/Pik_Botha_Transcript_Appendix_1.pdf

¹⁷ Von Wielligh & Von Wielligh-Steyn, The Bomb, 276.

¹⁸ Von Wielligh & Von Wielligh-Steyn, The Bomb, 277-278.

¹⁹ SADA, ‘Main points arising from Luncheon on 14 November 1989’; Author informal interview with former South African Foreign Minister Pik Botha, December 2009; D. Albright, ‘South Africa’s Secret Nuclear Weapons,’ ISIS Report, 1994, https://isis-online.org/isis-reports/detail/south-africas-secret-nuclear-weapons/13; Von Wielligh & Von Wielligh-Steyn, The Bomb, 218; Liberman, ‘The rise and fall of the South African bomb,’ 56; Waldo Stumpf, ‘South Africa’s Nuclear Weapons Program: From Deterrence to Dismantlement, Arms Control Today, 25 (December 1995/January 1996): 6.

²⁰ George Bush Library (GBL), Bush Presidential Records, Staff and Office Files, NSC, DBPF, South Africa [OA/ID CF01350], Memorandum: Daniel Poneman to Brent Scowcroft, ‘Proposed Press Release on South African Adherence to the Non-Proliferation Treaty,’ 27 June 1991; Malan, My life with the SA Defence Force, 218.

²¹ ‘Message to Congress on the South Africa-United States Agreement on the Peaceful uses of Nuclear Energy,’ Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents 31, 39 (2 October 1995), 1745-1746; ‘De Klerk: ‘South Africa had the Bomb’, Africa Report, Volume 38 (May–June 1993), 6.

²² South African Act on the Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction (Act 87 of 1993). https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201504/act87of1993.pdf.

²³ John Carlin, ‘Who helped South Africa go nuclear?’ The Sunday Age, 29 March 1993: 6; Anti-Apartheid Movement Archives (AAM), Oxford, MMS AAM 1550, World Campaign Memorandum to Professor Gambari, Chairman, UN Special Committee Against Apartheid, 3 April 1993; ‘De Klerk’s bomb story incomplete’, The Independent on Sunday, 26 March 1993: 13; ‘Bomb, bomb, who had the bomb?’ U.S. News and World Report 114, 13 (5 April 1993); ‘South Africa’s unexploded bombs (Editorial),’ The New York Times, 27 March 1993: 20.

²⁴ W. Pretorius & F. Swart, ‘Wapenverbod teen SA kan gou waai; Thabo Mbeki na VN met brief van pres. Mandela,’Beeld, 23 May 1994: 1; F. Swart, ‘Kernkrag: SA se rol ter sprake, Mbeki woon debat in Veiligheidsraad by’, Beeld, 24 May 1994: 4.

²⁵ B. Crossette, ‘South Africa emerges as a force for extending nuclear arms pact’, The New York Times, 23 April 1995: A1; Michal Onderco & Anna-Mart van Wyk, ‘Birth of a Norm Champion: How South Africa Came to Support the NPT’s Indefinite Extension,” The Nonproliferation Review, 26, 1-2 (2019): 23-41, DOI: 10.1080/10736700.2019.1591771.

²⁶ C. Saunders, ‘1989 and Southern Africa,’ in F. Hadler, M. Middell, and U. Engel (eds.), 1989 As A Global Moment, (Leipzig: Leipziger Universitätsverlag, 2015), 349-362 (at 353-354).