Emerging European Space Agencies in the Framework of Geopolitics of Outer Space

ABSTRACT

The increasing number of national space agencies, which is particularly visible in the last decade, is an important recent trend in space activities. Although one of the most frequently mentioned concepts in contemporary space activities is New Space, which emphasizes new technologies, transformation of strategic planning, and the commercial sphere, the original state structures associated with state actors, national space agencies or other governmental entities focused on space, remain indispensable elements for implementing space activities. The European cases presented in this study- Luxembourg, Portugal, and Greece- demonstrate the importance of national agencies in areas of implementing national space strategy, supporting the space sector, and representing national and international interests. The cases of Luxembourg and Portugal highlight the use the New Space transformation to prioritize the economic sphere complemented by diplomatic, scientific, and technological pursuits. Their approach is based on finding and exploiting a void in the space market and leveraging historically developed capacities in the field. In contrast, unsuccessful national space agencies can be observed in the same group of cases, Greece being the example. By comparing differences between successful and unsuccessful national space agencies, key insights into the effectiveness of such agencies are identified and discussed.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 See e.g. Gary Goertz and James Mahoney, A Tale of Two Cultures: Qualitative and Quantitative Research in the Social Sciences (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012).

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4 See Gary Goertz, Social Science Concepts: A User’s Guide (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006).

5 Asif A. Siddiqi, Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974 (Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2000), 119–120. ISBN 978–0160613050.

6 European Space Policy Institute, ESPI Report 70: Evolution of the Role of Space Agencies (Vienna: European Space Policy Institute, 2019), 18. ISSN 2076–6688.

7 Barbara Bigliardi and Giorgio Petroni, The Space Economy: From Science to Market (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2019), 53; Bianca Detsis and Emmanouil Detsis, “The benefits brought by space – General public versus space agencies perspectives,” Acta Astronautica 88 (July-August 2013): 129; Giorgio Petroni et al., “Discovering the basic strategic orientation of big space agencies,” Space Policy 25, no. 1 (February 2009): 45.

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9 Al-Rodhan 2012, from note 3.

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11 Louis Brennan, Loizos Heracleous, and Alessandra Vecchi, Above and Beyond: Exploring the Business of Space (London and New York: Routledge, 2018), 114.; Bryan R. Early, “Exploring the Final Frontier: An Empirical Analysis of Global Civil Space Proliferation,” International Studies Quarterly 58, no. 1 (March 2014): 55–67.; Adnan Merhaba, Matteo Ainardi, and Tobias Aebi, “The Space Agency of the Future: The space agency in the era of Space 4.0,” Arthur D. Little, accessed May 25, 2022, https://1url.cz/UruZl.; Asif A. Siddiqi, “Competing Technologies, National(ist) Narratives, and Universal Claims: Toward a Global History of Space Exploration,” Technology and Culture 51, no. 2 (April 2010): 426–427.

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15 Detsis – Detsis 2013: 129, from note 7; Renata Kommel et al, “Exploring Insights from Emerging Space Agencies,” The George Washington University a Elliott School of International Affairs (2020), https://aerospace.csis.org/exploring-insights-from-emerging-space-agencies/, 13; Elizabeth Quintana, “The New Space Age,” The RUSI Journal 162, no. 3 (2017): 88–109, doi: 10.1080/03071847.2017.1337048.

16 Al-Rodhan 2012: 25, from note 3.

17 European Space Policy Institute 2019: 18, from note 6.

18 European Space Policy Institute 2019: 8, from note 6.

19 Early 2014: 66, from note 11.

20 Ibid., 57.

21 Ibid., 63.

22 Ibid., 65–66.

23 Partha Dasgupta and Paul Stoneman, Economic Policy and Technological Performance, Rev. ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 51–53; Roberto Iorio, “Different Frameworks for Rationale, Modalities and Evaluation of Public Intervention in Research and Innovation: Traditional and Innovative Aspects in the Example of Space Agencies.” Universita degli studi, Dipartimento di economia istituzioni territorio (2003): 7.

24 Robert C. Harding, Space Policy in Developing Countries: The search for security and development on the final frontier (London and New York: Routledge, 2013), 68.

25 Bohumil Doboš, Geopolitics of the Outer Space: A European Perspective (Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 2019), 92.

26 Brennan – Heracleous - Vecchi 2018: 116–117, from note 11.

27 Cenan Al-Ekabi and Stefano Ferretti, Yearbook on Space Policy 2016: Space for Sustainable Development (Cham: Springer, 2018), 32.; Doboš 2019: 92, from note 25; Daniel Fiott, The European space sector as an enabler of EU strategic autonomy (Belgium: European Parliament, 2020), 6–7.

28 Kai-Uwe Schrogl, Handbook of Space Security Policies, Applications and Programs, 2nd edition (Cham: Springer, 2020), 1208.

29 Doboš 2019: 116, from note 25; European Space Policy Institute 2019: 55–56, from note 6; Petroni et al 2009: 54, from note 7.

30 Doboš 2019: 117–133, from note 25.

31 Daniel Sagath et al., “Space strategy and governance of ESA small member states,” Acta Astronautica 142, no. 1 (January 2018): 112–120, doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2017.09.031, 118–119; Giorgio Petroni et al., “Which benefits and limits derive from ESA membership for European Countries owning ‘medium-sized’ space agencies?” Acta Astronautica 142, no. 1 (January 2018): 135–137.

32 There is insufficient launch capacity in relation to the exploitability of other geographical conditions suitable for space launches to specific orbits (e.g., stable orbits with inclinations of 63.4 degrees and 116.6 degrees). There are also inefficiencies due to geographical position of Europe, which is reflected by many European countries (UK, Germany, Spain, Italy, etc.), particularly in relation to the need for launches of microsatellites and nanosatellites, and horizontal launches, etc.

33 Doboš 2019: 117–133, from note 25; Frans G. von der Dunk, National Space Legislation in Europe: Issues of Authorisation of Private Space Activities in the Light of Developments in European Space Cooperation (Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV, 2011), 117.; Thomas C. Hoerber and Emmanuel Sigalas, Theorizing European Space Policy (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2016), 86.; Petroni et al 2009: 135–137, from note 31.

34 Maarten Adriaensen et al., “Priorities in national space strategies and governance of the member states of the European Space Agency,” Acta Astronautica 117 (December 2015): 363–364; Sagath et al. 2018: 114–115, from note 31; Daniel Sagath et al., “Development of national space governance and policy trends in member states of the European Space Agency,” Acta Astronautica 165 (December 2019): 46–47.

35 Adriaensen et al. 2015: 364–365, from note 33; Sagath et al. 2018: 113–114, from note 31; Sagath et al. 2019: 45, from note 33.

36 Doboš 2019: 124, from note 25.

37 Cenan Al-Ekabi, et al., Yearbook on Space Policy 2015 Access to Space and the Evolution of Space Activities (Vienna: Springer, 2017), 283.

38 Kommel et al 2020: 17–18, from note 15.

39 Brennan – Heracleous - Vecchi 2018: 145, from note 11.

40 Brennan – Heracleous - Vecchi 2018: 145–146, from note 11; Edward Burger and Giulia Bordacchini, eds., Yearbook on Space Policy 2017: Security in Outer Space: Rising Stakes for Civilian Space Programmes (Cham: Springer, 2019), 334.

41 Schrogl 2020: 624, from note 28.

42 Alessandra Vernile, The Rise of Private Actors in the Space Sector (Cham: Springer, 2018), 47–50.

43 Kommel et al 2020: 21–25, from note 15.

44 Doo Hwan Kim, Global Issues Surrounding Outer Space Law and Policy (Hershey: Information Science Reference, 2021), 97.

45 European Space Policy Institute 2019: 59, from note 6; OECD, The Space Economy in Figures: How Space Contributes to the Global Economy (Paris: OECD Publishing, 2019), 90. ISBN 978-92-64 -80595-8. https://doi.org/10.1787/c5996201-en.

46 Law of 20 July 2017 on the exploration and use of space resources (Loi du 20 juillet 2017 sur l’exploration et l’utilisation des ressources de l’espace), and the Law of 15 December 2020 on Space Activities (Loi du 15 décembre 2020 portant sur les activités spatiales).

47 Artemis Accords: Principles for Cooperation in the Civil Exploration and Use of the Moon, Mars, Comets, and Asteroids for Peaceful Purposes (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2020), https://1url.cz/lrIFT.

48 Vera Gomes, “Portugal in space,” Acta Astronautica 61, no. 1–6 (2007): 532.; Pedro Miguel da Silva Costa, “The geostrategic position of the Azores Archipelago and the current space race: Opportunities for Portugal,” Atlantic Centre for Defence Capacity Building (2020): 6.

49 Kommel et al 2020: 63, from note 15; Burger – Bordacchini 2019: 347–348, from note 39.

50 Portugal Space 2030: A Research, Innovation and Growth Strategy For Portugal (2018). Lisboa, Portugal: FCT, ročník 1, číslo 50, 19–27.

51 Decree-Law No. 16/2019 of 22 January 2019, and Regional Legislative Decree No. 9/2019/A.

52 Magda Cocco, Helena Correia Mendonca, and Cristina Melo Miranda, “Portugal,” in The Space Law Review, ed. Joanne Wheeler (London: The Law Reviews, 2019), 78–79. ISBN 978-1 -912228-79-9; Kommel et al 2020: 63, from note 15.

53 Cocco – Correia - Melo 2019: 79–89, from note 51; Kommel et al 2020: 63–66, from note 15; Silva Costa 2020: 9–10, from note 47.

54 Burger – Bordacchini 2019: 342, from note 39.

55 Kommel et al 2020: 52–54, from note 15.

56 Panos Sakkas, “Καταργείται ο Ελληνικός Διαστημικός Οργανισμός - Έρχεται το Ελληνικό Κέντρο Διαστήματος,” Lifo.gr, DYO DEKA, accessed January 22, 2023, https://1url.cz/lrIaz.

57 Kommel et al 2020: 52–54, from note 15; Marianna Ilikidou, The European Space Agency and EU Policies: Legal and Political Perspectives of the Participation of Greece, Dissertation thesis. (University of Macedonia, 2020), 63–69, tutor: Nikolaos Zaikos.

58 Jason Rainbow, “AWS agrees deal to expand Greece’s space industry with the cloud.” Spacenews.com, Alexandria, VA: Pocket Ventures, LLC., (2021). Accessed January 22, 2023. https://1url.cz/irIaN.

59 Abdullah Bozkurt, “Turkey gears up for conflict with Greece, Cyprus in outer space, secret document reveals,” Nordicmonitor.com, Nordic Research and Monitoring Network, (September 29, 2020), https://nordicmonitor.com/2020/09/turkey-gears-up-for-a-conflict-with-greece-cyprus-in-the-outer-space-secret-document-reveals/.

60 Al-Rodhan 2012 from note 3, Dolman 2002, from note 3.

61 Merhaba – Ainardi - Aebi 2019, from note 11.

62 Early 2014, from note 11, Harding 2013, from note 24.

63 Alexander George and Andrew Bennett, Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2004).