Liability Risk Sharing Framework for Commercial Launch Industry in India

ABSTRACT

There is an appreciable body of research addressing the liability issues in space launch activities. Yet, the accommodation of these principles into the legal frameworks governing commercial space launch industry in developing states, like India, is not adequately addressed. Despite being a spacefaring state since 1963, India’s commercial launching industry is in its nascent stage primarily due to statutory restrictions. Although the Indian government has allowed private participation, the liability sharing framework under the proposed laws, as reflected from drafts, is not fit to accommodate non-governmental launchings. To mend this, the paper posits that India devise a liability risk sharing framework to ensure legal certainty with a balance between industrial goals and exchequer’s interests. As such, this paper considers, comparatively and analytically, a tailored regulatory environment for first, second, and third-party liabilities in India along with damage assessment standards and insurance requirements.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes

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7 Disaster Management Act, 2005, No. 53, Acts of Parliament, 2005 (India).

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9 Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, No. 38, Acts of Parliament, 2010 (India) [hereinafter Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010].

10 Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority Act, 1999, No. 41, Acts of Parliament, 1999 (India).

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19 Supra note 15.

20 Kunwar S. Pratap, Biswanath, Gupta and Lavanya Pathak et al., In Webinar, ISRO Spells Out Its Plans for IN-SPACe and Private Sector Participation, The Wire – Science, last modified August 22 2020, https://science.thewire.in/politics/government/in-webinar-isro-spells-out-its-plans-for-in-space-and-private-sector-participation (accessed March 10, 2022).

21 Supra note 1,2.

22 Supra note 20.

23 IN-SPACe Roles and Responsibilities, DoS, ISRO, https://www.isro.gov.in/indian-national-space-promotion-and-authorization-center-space (accessed February 15, 2021).

24 Ibid.

25 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, art. VI, Jan. 27, 1967, 18 U.S.T. 2410 [hereinafter Outer Space Treaty].

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27 Pallavi Mund, ”Tomorrow Is Today’ for the Indian Space Saga: Delineating the Legal Framework for Space Activities in India, “Air & Space Law 46. no 1(2021): 119–34.

28 Draft Space Activities Bill, 2017, DoS, Government of India (2017).

29 Kunwar S. Pratap, Biswanath Gupta and Lavnya Pathak et al., “With IN-SPACe in the Picture, What Is the Space Activities Bill’s Place?,” The Wire – Science, last modified July 29, 2020, https://science.thewire.in/spaceflight/with-in-space-in-the-picture-what-is-the-space-activities-bills-place (accessed February 15, 2021).

30 Supra note 20.

31 Draft Space Based Communication Policy of India, 2020, DoS, Government of India (2020).

32 Draft Space Based Remote Sensing Policy of India, 2020, DoS, Government of India (2020).

33 Ibid., 7, 8.

34 Supra note 5.

35 R. Robichaud, “Hazard Analysis of Commercial Space Transportation” Vol. 1, Operations; Vol. 2, Hazards; Vol. 3, Risk Analysis, US Dept. of Transportation, PB93–199040, Accession, 00620693, 1–3 (1988), https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/licenses_permits/media/hazard.pdf. (accessed February 14, 2021).

36 Ibid., 2–6.

37 Ibid., 2–8.

38 Ibid., 4–2.

39 Ibid., 4–1.

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44 Caleb Henry, “SpaceX submits paperwork for 30,000 more Starlink satellites,” Spacenews last modified October 15, 2019, https://spacenews.com/spacex-submits-paperwork-for-30000-more-starlink-satellites (accessed February 18, 2021).

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46 Paul B. Larson, “Commercial Operator Liability in the New Space Era”, American Journal of International Law, 113, (2019): 109–113.

47 Andrew J. Harrington, “Legal and Regulatory Challenges to Leveraging Insurance for Commercial,” Journal of Space Law, 41, (2017): 41–29.

48 Supra note 20.

49 Joseph N. Pelton, Satellite Communications 75 (New York: Springer, 2012), 75.

50 Supra note. 47.

51 Oliver Schöffski & André G. Wegener, “Risk Management and Insurance Solutions for Space and Satellite Projects,” The Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance, 24, no 2, (1999): 203–215.

52 Supra note. 46.

53 Ved P. Nanda, “Liability for Space Activities, “University of Colorado Law Review, 41, (1969): 509.

54 William B. Wiring, “Practical Implications of Launching State – Appropriate State Definitions, “Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space, 37, (1994): 109.

55 Ibid.

56 Bin Cheng, “Article VI of the 1967 Space Treaty Revisited: ‘International Responsibility’, ‘National Activities’ and ‘The Appropriate State’,” Journal of Space Law, 26, no 1, (1998): 7, 10.

57 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, Art. III, Mar. 29, 1972, 24 U.S.T. 2389, 961 U.N.T.S. 187 [hereinafter Liability Convention]; See also Art. VII, OST.

58 Trail Smelter Arbitration (U.S. v. Can.), 3 R.I.A.A. 1905 (1938).

59 Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgium v Spain), Second Phase, Judgment, 1970 I.C.J. Rep. 4, (Feb. 5).

60 Ibid.

61 International Law Commission, Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, U.N. GAOR, 56th Sess., U.N. Doc. A/RES/56/83 (2002) [hereinafter ARSIWA].

62 Stephan Talmon, “The responsibility of outside powers for the acts of secessionist entities, “International and Comparative Law Quarterly,58, (2009): 507.

63 ARSIWA, Art. 8.

64 ARISWA, Art. 11.

65 Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 1979.

66 Parliament of India: Remote Sensing Data Policy, DoS, ISRO (2011).

67 Parliament of India: Policy Framework for Satellite Communications in India, DoS, ISRO (1997).

68 Art. IV, Liability Convention; See also Art. VI, OST.

69 “Application of the Concept of ‘Launching State’,” United Nations General Assembly A/RES/59/115, https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_59_115E.pdf (last accessed 15 February 2021).

70 Art. VI, OST.

71 Carl Q. Christol, “International Liability for Damage Caused By Space Objects,” American Journal of International Law, 74, no. 2, (1980): 346.

72 Edythe. E. Weeks, “A. Faiyetole, Science, Technology and Imaginable Social and Behavioral Impacts on Outer Space Develops,” Acta Astronautica, 95, (2014): 163.

73 P.J. Blount, “Renovating Space: The Future of International Space Law,” Denver Journal International Law & Policy, 40, (2011):515, 531.

74 Matxalen S. Aranzamendi, “Economic and Policy Aspects of Space Regulations in Europe Part 1: The Case of National Space Legislation – Finding the Way Between Common and Coordinated Action,” European Space Policy Institute, (2009): 16–17.

75 Chorzow Factory Case (Germany v. Poland.) (1928) PCIJ Ser A, No 17, at 47.

76 Art. II, III, Liability Convention.

77 Art. VI, OST.

78 Paul S. Dempsey, “The Emergence of National Space Law,” Annals of Air and Space Law, 38, (2013): 331.

79 Huang Huikang, “Space Law and the Expanding Role of Private Enterprises, with Particular Attention to Launching Activities,” Singapore Journal of International & Comparative Law, 5, (2001): 55.

80 Pamelal Meredith, “Risk Allocation Provisions in Commercial Launch Contracts,” International Institute of Space Law, 34, (1991): 267.

81 Julian Hermida, “Legal Basis for a National Space Legislation,” Space Regulations Library, 3, (2004): 87.

82 Julian Hermida, “Risk Management in Arianespace Space Launch Agreements.” Dr. Julian Hermida, http://www.julianhermida.com/dossier/dossierarianespace.htm (accessed February 22, 2021).

83 K. H. Böckstiegel, “The Law Applicable to Contracts,” International Institute of Space Law, 25, (1982): 207.

84 “Liability Risk Sharing Regime for U.S. Commercial Space Transportation: Study and Analysis,” Federal Aviation Administration, United States of America, (2006): 1–2, https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/media/faaliabilityrisksharing4–02.pdf(accessed (accessed November 14, 2020).

85 Louis de G. Matignon, “Space Insurance and Space Law,” Space Legal Issues, August 06, 2019, https://www.spacelegalissues.com/space-insurance-space-law (accessed February 22, 2021).

86 Supra note 82.

87 Supra note 80, 268.

88 The copy of the agreement was received by the author (Dr. Biswanath Gupta) in an informal discussion with officials of ISRO.

89 Ibid.

90 Ibid.

91 Julian Hermida, “Norms governing launch services by NASA and commercial US private companies,” (LL.D. Thesis, Catholic University of Cordoba, 2000), 126.

92 Supra note 85.

93 Ibid.

94 Commercial Space Launch Act Amendments of 1988, H.R.4399, 100^th Congress, 1988 (United States), https://www.congress.gov/bill/100th-congress/house-bill/4399 (accessed December 14, 2021).

95 Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, 14 CFR Part 440 Financial Responsibility Requirements for Licensed Launch Activities, Vol. 71 No. 241, Federal Register, Section 440.3 (2006), https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/licenses_permits/media/part440.pdf (accessed December 14, 2021).

96 Commercial Space Launch Act Amendment of 1988, Report of the Senate Committee Commerce, Science and Transportation on H.R. 4399, SR 100–593, US Government Printing Office, Washington, (1988): 14.

97 Ibid.

98 P. Meredith, “Risk Allocation Provisions in Commercial Launch Contracts,” International Institute of Space Law, 34, (1991): 267.

99 Julian Hermida, “Legal Aspects of Space Risk Management: The Allocation of Risks and Assignment of Liability in Commercial Launch Services” (LL.M. Thesis, McGill University, 2000), 85.

100 Supra note 91.

101 Julian Hermida, “Commercial Space Launch Services Contracts in France and the United States of America,” Uniform Law Review, 9, (2004): 537.

102 Midland Land Reclamation Limited and Leicestershire County Council v. Warren Energy Limited, [1997] EWHC Technology 375.

103 Sheffield District Railway Company v. Great Central Railway Company, [1911] 27 T.L.R. 451, 452.

104 Bernhard Schmidt, “Best Efforts Principle and Terms of Contract in Space Business,” In Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space, 31, (Bangalore, India, 1988), 330.

105 Tanja Masson-Zwaan, “The Martin Marietta Case or How to Safeguard Private Commercial Space Activities,” USL, 35, (1992): 247.

106 Supra note 1.

107 (Unofficial Translation) Law of the Russian Federation about Space Activity, art. 13, Decree No. 5663–1, Russian House of Soviets, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/nationalspacelaw/russian_federation/decree_5663-1_E.html (accessed December 14, 2021).

108 Frans G. von der Dunk, “Two New National Space Laws: Russia And South Africa,” Space, Cyber, and Telecommunications Law Program Faculty Publications, 47, (1995). https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/spacelaw/47 (accessed March 11, 2022).

109 E. Kamenetskaya, V.S. Vereshchetinand E. Zhukova, “Legal regulation of space activities in Russia,” Space Policy, 9, (1993): 121–3; J. H. Heintze and Das russische Weltraumgesetzvom, “Article title,” The Russian Space Law, of 20 August 1993], 44 ZeitschriftfUrLuft- und Weltraumrecht (1995), 36–7.

110 Nuclear Liability Fund Rules, 2015, Department of Atomic Energy, Central Government (2015).

111 Ibid., Rule 3(3).

112 Section 6, Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010.

113 Ran Chakrabarti, “India: Civil Nuclear Liability Law In India,“ Mondaq, May 08, 2015, https://www.mondaq.com/india/energy-law/395640/civil-nuclear-liability-law-in-india (accessed February 24, 2021).

114 Supra note 1.

115 Supra note 84, ES-2.

116 Ibid.

117 Commercial Space Launch Act, H.R. 3942, 98^th Congress, 1984 (United States), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-98/pdf/STATUTE-98-Pg3055.pdf (accessed December 16, 2021).

118 Supra note 107, Article 29.

119 Supra note 81.

120 Ibid.

121 Supra note 94.

122 House – Science, Space and Technology; Senate – Commerce, Science, and Transportation.

123 United States Congress House Committee on Appropriations, Downsizing Government and Setting Priorities of Federal Programs, US Government Printing Office, at 667 (1995).

124 Report of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation on the Commercial Space Launch Amendments of 1988, Senate Report No. 593, 100^th Congress, 2d Session, U.S. Government Printing Office, at 12 (1990).

125 Ibid., 13.

126 Ibid.

127 DoS, Antrix Corporation Limited, https://www.antrix.co.in/Aboutus (accessed February 24, 2021).

128 DoS, NewSpace India Limited, https://www.nsilindia.co.in (accessed February 24, 2021).

129 “PSLV-C51, the first dedicated launch for NSIL, successfully launches Amazonia-1 and 18 Co-passenger satellites from Sriharikota,” DoS, ISRO, February 28, 2021, https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c51-amazonia-1 (accessed March 3, 2021).

130 Skyroot Aerospace, www.skyroot.in (accessed February 24, 2021).

131 Agnikul Cosmos Private Limited & Agnikul Cosmos Launch Vehicles Private Limited, www.agnikul.in (accessed February 24, 2021).

132 Small Satellite Launch Vehicle Manufacturing, DoS, NewSpace India Limited, https://www.nsilindia.co.in (accessed March 3, 2021).

133 Polar Satellite Launch Vehicles, DoS, ISRO, https://www.isro.gov.in/launchers/pslv (accessed March 3, 2021).

134 Supra note 124.

135 “Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mk-III,” DoS, ISRO, https://www.isro.gov.in/launchers/gslv-mk-iii (accessed March 3, 2021).

136 “Definition of tangible adjective from the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary,” Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries, https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/tangible (accessed March 5, 2021).

137 Ibid.

138 Article I(a), Liability Convention.

139 William L. Prosser, Prosser on Torts, vol. 6, 3d ed. (Minnesota, USA: West Publishing Co. 1964).

140 Supra note 46.

141 Restatement (Second) of Torts Section 502a (Am. Law Inst. 1977).

142 Space Activities Act, 1998, No. 123, Acts of Parliament 1998 (Commonwealth of Australia), https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2004C01013 [hereinafter “Space Activities Act”].

143 Paul S. Dempsey, Space Law 11 (Eagan, MN: Thomson Reuters/West, 2012).

144 Section 67, Space Activities Act.

145 Supra note 107, article 30(3).

146 Ibid.

147 Ashish Bhan and Mohit Rohatgi, “Legal systems in India: overview,” Thomson Reuters, March 01, 2021, https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/w-017–5278?transitionType=Default&contextData=(sc.Default)&firstPage=true (accessed March 3, 2021).

148 Ratanlal Ranchhoddas, Dhirajlal Thakore and Akshay Sapre, Law of Torts, vol. 2, 26 ed. (Haryana, India: Lexis Nexis, 2015).

149 See the observations of Krishna Aiyar, j., in the context of the tort of conspiracy in Rohtas Industries Limited v. Rohtas Industries Staff Union, (1976) 2 SCC 82 (93) : AIR 1976 SC 425 – “We cannot incorporate English torts without any adaptation into Indian Law.”

150 Rylands v. Fletcher, (1868) LR 3 HL 330.

151 M.C. Mehta v. Union of India, AIR 1987 965.

152 Section 67, 68, Space Activities Act.

153 Australia is a signatory to all five UN’s space law treatises.

154 General Outline, Explanatory Memorandum, Space Activities Bill 1998, https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/legislation/ems/s177_ems_bbd2a196-ab50-4fc0-be98-d2c050241b39/upload_pdf/18179em.pdf;fileType=application%2Fpdf (accessed February 14, 2021).

155 Liability Convention 1972.

156 Article I, Liability Convention; Article VII, Outer Space Treaty.

157 Jessica, “What is a Launching State?,” European State Agency Blog, June 13, 2017, http://blogs.esa.int/cleanspace/2017/06/13/what-is-a-launching-state (accessed March 3, 2021).

158 Supra note 79.

159 Ibid.

160 Supra note 95, section 440.9.

161 Jose M. Filho, “Regulation of Space Activities in Brazil,” National Regulation of Space Activities, 61,76 (R. Jakhu, ed., Springer 2010).

162 Outer Space Act, 1986, art. 10, c. 38, Acts of Parliament, 1986 (United Kingdom).

163 Rules Concerning Space Activities and the Establishment of a Registry of Space Objects (Space Activities Act), 2007 (The Netherlands).

164 Space Affairs Act, No. 84, art. 14(1)(a) and 14(2)(a), Acts of Parliament, 1993 (The Republic of South Africa); Space Affairs Amendment Act, No. 64, Acts of Parliament, 1995 (The Republic of South Africa); South African National Space Agency Act, 36 of 2008.

165 Supra note 74.

166 Supra note 138.

167 Motor Vehicles Act 1988, No. 59, Acts of Parliament, 1988 (India) [hereinafter MV Act, 1988].

168 Section 140, MV Act, 1988.

169 Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules for International Carriage by Air (Montreal Convention), 1999.

170 Ibid.

171 The Carriage by Air Act 1972, No. 69, Acts of Parliament, 1972, Section 4A (India) [hereinafter The Carriage by Air Act, 1972].

172 The Fatal Accidents Act 1855, No. 13, Acts of Parliament, 1855, Section 1A (India).

173 The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010, No. 38, Acts of Parliament, 2010, Section 2(g) (India) [hereinafter The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010].

174 Ibid., Section 15.

175 Workmen’s Compensation Act 1923, No. 8, Acts of Parliament, 1923, Schedule IV, 2^nd Column (India) [hereinafter The Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923].

176 Section 4(a), The Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923.

177 Supra note 138.

178 Section 140 of the MV Act, 1988.

179 Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules for International Carriage by Air (Warsaw Convention), Oct. 12, 1929.

180 Section 5, The Carriage by Air Act 1972.

181 Section 14(a), The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010.

182 Section 4, The Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923.

183 Section 4(b) & 4(c), The Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923. Id. at Section 4(b) & 4(c).

184 Supra note 138.

185 The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010; Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Rules, 2011.

186 Chapter IV, Adjudication of Claims, Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Rules, 2011.

187 Supra note 85.

188 “General Characteristics of Insurance, “Centre for Banking and Insurance Laws,” last modified 16 April 2019, http://assets.vmou.ac.in/CBIL02.pdf (accessed Month 14, 2021).

189 Supra note 85.

190 Ibid.

191 Praveen N. Mahtani, “Insurance Law and Regulations in India, Nishith Desai Associates 3 (2002), http://www.nishithdesai.com/fileadmin/user_upload/pdfs/Insurance_Law_-_Regulations_in_India.pdf (accessed December 14, 2021).

192 Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India Act, 1999, No. 41, Preamble, Acts of Parliament, 1999 [hereinafter IRDAI Act, 1999]; Insurance Act, 1938, No. 4, Preamble, Acts of Parliament, 1999.

193 Section 4, IRDAI Act, 1999.

194 Caroline Arbaugh, “Gravitating Toward Sensible Resolutions: The PCA Optional Rules for the Arbitration of Disputes Relating to Outer Space Activity,” Georgia Journal of International & Comparative Law, 42 (2014): 843–44.

195 Zhao Yun, “A Legal Regime for Space Tourism: Creating Legal Certainty in Outer Space”, Journal of Air Law and Commerce 74 (2009): 959.

196 Jeanne Suchodolski, “An Overview and Comparison of Aviation and Space Insurance,” Journal of Business & Technology Law, 14, (2019): 469, 487–88.

197 Ibid., 490–91.

198 Space Activities Amendment (Launches and Returns) Act 2018, No. 92, Part 4A, 2018 (Australia).

199 51 U.S.C. Section 50, 914(a).

200 Federal Law on the Authorization of Space Activities and the establishment of a National Space Registry (Space Law), BGBL I No. 132/2011, Section 4 (Austria) (listing the conditions for a license to issue).

201 Law on the Activities of Launching, Flight Operation or Guidance of Space Objects, (2005), as amended, art. 5, Section 2 (Belgium).

202 Executive Order on requirements in connection with approval of activities in outer space, etc., No. 552, 2016, as amended, Section 13(1), 2016 (Denmark).

203 Space Industry Act 2018, C. 5, Acts of Parliament, Section 38 (United Kingdom).

204 UNCOPUOS, Schematic Overview of National Regulatory Frameworks For Space Activities, UN Doc A/AC.105/C.2/2010/CRP.12 (2010).

205 Supra note 74, 21.

206 Supra note 107, article 25.

207 JA Vedda, “Study of the Liability Risk- Sharing Regime in the United States for Commercial Space Transportation,“ Vole Center: USDOT, 2006.

208 Section 8, The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010.

209 Supra note 113.

210 Supra note 28, s. 8(2)(h).

211 Supra note 28, s. 12(2).

212 “Ikigai Law: Limiting Space Liability and Insurance for Indian Start-ups,” Mondaq, November 6, 2020, https://www.mondaq.com/india/insurance-laws-and-products/1002398/limiting-space-liability-and-insurance-for-indian-start-ups (accessed March 14, 2021).

213 (Unofficial Translation) Austrian Federal Law on the Authorisation of Space Activities and the Establishment of a National Space Registry, art. 4(4) (2011), https://download.esa.int/docs/ECSL/France.pdf. (accessed on December 14, 2021).

214 United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS), Legal Sub-Committee, 52nd Session April 2013, Information on the activities of international intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations relating to space law, A/AC.105/C.2/2013/CRP.6. See also Sandeepa Bhat and Arthad Kurlekar, “A Discourse on the Remodelling of ILA Model Law on National Space Legislation,” Journal of Space Law, University of Mississippi School of Law,41, (2018): 1, 18.

215 Thoma and Shimrock, “Insurance of Satellites,” ESA Bulletin 16 (1978): 66.

216 Jean-Louis Magdelenat, “Spacecraft Insurance,” Annals of Air and Space Law, 7, (1982): 363.

217 Ibid.

218 Philippe Montpert, “Space Insurance in Contracting for Space” (Lesley Jane Smith & Ingo Baumann ed. Burlington: Ashgate 2012), 286.

219 L. Ploechinger, “Insurance of space risks,” ESA Bulletin, 53, (1988): 84–7.

220 Schoffski and Wegener, “Risk Management and Insurance Solutions for Space and Satellite Projects,” The Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance, 24, no. 2, (1999): 205.

221 H. Zocher, “BetrachtungenzurRaumfahrt und derenVersicherung-gestern, heute,” Morgen, 39, no. 16, (1984): 1044–51.

222 Supra note 218, 67.

223 “About Munich Re,“ Munich Re., https://www.munichre.com/en/solutions/for-industry-clients/space-and-satellite-insurance-solutions.html#1469964029 (accessed March 13, 2021).

224 Ibid.

225 H. Zocher, “NeuereinternationaleEntwicklungen in der Raumfahrt und ihrerVersicherung,” Versicherungswirtschaft, 43(2)(1988): 284–90.

226 Supra note 223.

227 Schoffski and Wegener, “Risk Management and Insurance Solutions for Space and Satellite Projects,” The Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance, 24, no. 2, (1999): 203–15.

228 Supra note 69.

229 III Cologne Commentary on Space Law 579 (Stephan Hobe et al. eds., 2015).