https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3882-8391
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ABSTRACT
In this study, we applied quantitative microbial risk assessment and net present value methodologies to evaluate the economic viability and safety of wastewater treatment to produce water for reuse. We found payback periods of three to over 15 years for investment in the universalisation of sanitation services in the selected municipalities, wherein the most feasible scenarios were those in which water reuse was carried out at its maximum potential. Microbial risk was assessed in terms of reduced concentrations of Escherichia coli. Results show that reuse of wastewater treated by different plant configurations for crop irrigation, involving only secondary treatment processes, presented high risk of infection for both farmers and consumers (3.50E–02 ± 3.10E–03 and 5.80E 02 ± 3.30E–03, respectively). In the urban and industrial context, it did not pose any risk beyond the tolerable risk recommended by WHO, except for the worker’s droplet ingestion route of exposure (2.40E–03 ± 3.80E–03).
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the support obtained from the following Brazilian institutions: Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico – CNPq; Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior – CAPES; Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais – FAPEMIG; Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Estações Sustentáveis de Tratamento de Esgoto – INCT ETEs Sustentáveis (INCT Sustainable Sewage Treatment Plants); Fundação de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento do Ensino, Ciência e Tecnologia de Mato Grosso do Sul—FUNDECT/MS. We also thank the Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS), particularly the Postgraduate Programme in Environmental Technologies (PGTA). This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Finance Code 001. The authors are grateful for the support of the sanitation companies Sanesul, Sabesp, and Águas Guariroba.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Authors’ contributions
All authors made substantial contributions to the conception and design of this work. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by Luciene da Silva Santos, Hugo Henrique de Simone Souza, and Isaac Dennis Amoah, under the supervision of Paula Loureiro Paulo. The first draft of this manuscript was written by Luciene da Silva Santos and Hugo Henrique de Simone Souza. All authors commented on the previous versions of the manuscript. Maria Elisa Magri and Paula Loureiro Paulo critically revised it for important intellectual content. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.
Data availability statement
The authors confirm that data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and its supplementary materials.
List of abbreviations, acronyms, and symbols
| ANA | = | Agência Nacional de Águas [National Water Agency] |
| AR | = | Average water reuse rate |
| BC | = | Before Christ |
| c | = | Concentration of pathogenic E. coli |
| C0 | = | Total initial investment cost |
| CF | = | Cash flow |
| CFU | = | Colony-Forming Unit |
| Craw | = | Concentration of pathogenic E. coli per milliliter |
| Cst | = | Historical value of the parameter |
| Do | = | Dose ingested |
| d | = | Median infection dose |
| DALYs | = | Disability-Adjusted Life Years |
| EU | = | European Union |
| fD | = | Frequency at which droplets splash into the mouth |
| fHM | = | Frequency of the hand-to-mouth contact |
| h | = | Thickness of the water film on the hands |
| i | = | Discount rate |
| IBGE | = | Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística [Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics] |
| IN | = | Indicator |
| IR | = | Air inhalation rate |
| k | = | First-order activation constant |
| l | = | Mean per capita intake of lettuce |
| MS | = | Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil |
| MWC | = | Meter of Water Column |
| n | = | Duration of exposure |
| o | = | Total number of outcomes considered |
| N0 | = | Initial density of coliforms after dilution |
| N50 | = | 50% of the exposed population |
| NPV | = | Net Present Value |
| Nt | = | Coliform density |
| P (d) | = | Probability of infection |
| P (ill\inf) | = | Probability of illness given an infection |
| P (outcome\ill) | = | Probability of an outcome given an illness |
| P1(d) | = | Risk of infection from a single exposure |
| pppy | = | per person per year |
| QMRA | = | Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment |
| R$ | = | Brazilian currency Reais |
| RT | = | Total Revenue |
| SNIS | = | Sistema Nacional de Informações sobre Saneamento [Brazilian National Sanitation Information System] |
| SS | = | Skin surface area in contact with the mouth |
| TR | = | Tolerable Risks |
| USEPA | = | United States Environmental Protection Agency |
| UV | = | Ultraviolet |
| V | = | Volume |
| VD | = | Droplet volume |
| VIWS | = | Fraction of inhalable water spray |
| VR | = | Volume of reused water billed |
| WHO | = | World Health Organization |
| WTR | = | Wastewater treatment service revenue |
| WW | = | Wastewater |
| WWTPs | = | Wastewater Treatment Plants |
| Y | = | Year |
| α | = | Dimensionless infectivity constant |
Supplementary material
Supplemental data for this article can be accessed https://doi.org/10.1080/1573062X.2023.2295309