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Research Article

Hate Speech in Political Discourse in 2015-2021 as a Determinant of Poland’s Internal and External Security

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Pages 111-131 | Published online: 24 Jun 2023
 

ABSTRACT

The main aim of this paper is to identify the anticipated political and social consequences for the security of Poland and its citizens due to the presence of hate speech in public discourse. A morphological method was used in the research. The paper consists of an introduction, three chapters and a conclusion. Introduction outlines the research problem and presents elements of research methodology. The second part provides examples of hate speech against refugees, migrants, national minorities, people with different culture, skin color, religion, while the third part characterizes attitudes and behaviors expressed in hate speech against LGBT people. The fourth part characterizes examples of hate language used in the political debate taking place in Poland. The conclusion summarizes the research results obtained.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes

1. Neil Chakraborti, Jon Garland, Hate Crime. Impacts, Causes and Responses. 2nd ed. (SAGE Publications, Inc., 2015).

2. Justyna Jurczak, Działalność Policji wobec zjawiska stadionowej mowy nienawiści. 1st ed. [The Police activity in combatting hate speech on football stadiums] (Warsaw, Biuro Rzecznika Praw Obywatelskich, 2015), 122.

3. Neil Chakraborti, Jon Garland, Hate Crime. Impacts, Causes and Responses; Phyllis B. Gerstenfeld, Hate Crimes. Causes, Control and Controversies. 3rd ed. (SAGE Publications, Inc., 2004); Michael Whine, Hate crime in Europe, in Routledge International Handbook on Hate Crime, ed. Nathan Hall, Abbee Corb, Paul Giannasi, John G. D. Grieve, (Oxford: Routledge, 2015).

4. Justyna Miklaszewska, “Freedom of Speech in Modern Political Culture,” Avant, 10 no. 1, 77-88, doi: 10.26913/avant.2019.01.06.

5. “Equality and the Fight Against Racism and Xenophobia” (European Network of Equality Bodies, Brussels, 2019), https://equineteurope.org/equality-and-the-fight-against-racism-and-xenophobia-cost-of-non-europe-report/ (accessed November 24, 2022).

6. „Rzeczpospolita Polska, Wybory Parlamentarne 13 października 2019 - Krótkoterminowa misja obserwacji wyborów ODIHR – Sprawozdanie końcowe” [Poland, Parliamentary Elections, 13 October 2019 – Final Report] (OSCE – ODIHR, 2020), https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/8/8/448417.pdf (accessed 23 November, 2020).

7. “Concluding observations on the combined twenty second to twenty fourth periodic reports of Poland,” (Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination – CERD, 2019), 4, https://www.hfhr.pl/en/recommendations-of-the-united-nations-committee-on-the-elimination-of-racial-discrimination-on-the-effective-measures-to-combat-racism-and-discrimination/ (accessed November 24, 2022).

8. „Opinie Polaków o bezpieczeństwie w kraju i okolicy” [Poles’ opinion on safety and security in country and neighborhood], Komunikat z badań nr 72/2019, (Warsaw: CBOS, 2019).

9. “Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulations)” (The European Parliament and of the Council, 2016), https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/PL/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32016R0679 (accessed November 24, 2022).

10. Michał Bilewicz, Wiktor Soral, “Hate Speech Epidemic. The Dynamic Effects of Derogatory Language on Intergroup Relations and Political Radicalization”, Political Psychology, 41 (2020): 3-33, doi: 10.1111/pops.12670.

11. Tom Ritchey, Anna-Lena Lövkvist-Andersen, Robin Olsson, Maria Stenström, “Modelling Society’s Capacity to Manage Extraordinary Events. Developing a Generic Design Basis (GDB) Model for Extraordinary Societal Events using Computer-Aided Morphological Analysis,” (the Society for Risk Analysis Conference – SRA, Paris, November 2004), http://www.swemorph.com/pdf/sra.pdf (accessed November 24, 2022).

12. Joachim Kersten, Natalia Hankel, “A comparative look at right-wing extremism, anti-Semitism, and xenophobic hate crimes in Poland, Ukraine, and Russia,” in Right-Wing Radicalism Today: Perspectives From Europe and the US. 1st ed., ed. Sabine von Mering, Timothy Wyman McCarty, (London: Routledge, 2013), 85-105, doi:10.4324/9780203381632.

13. Anna Horolets, Adriana Mica, Mikołaj Pawlak, Paweł Kubicki, “Ignorance as an Outcome of Categorizations: The ‘Refugees’ in the Polish Academic Discourse before and after the 2015 Refugee Crisis”, East European Politics and Societies, 34 no. 3 (2020): 730-751, doi: 10.1177/0888325419891204.

14. Wiktor Soral, James Liu, Michał Bilewicz, “Media of Contempt: Social Media Consumption Predicts Normative Acceptance of Anti-Muslim Hate Speech and Islamoprejudice”, International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 14 no. 10 (2020), doi: 10.4119/ijcv-3774.

15. Paweł Cywiński, Filip Katner, Jarosław Ziółkowski, Zarządzanie strachem. Jak prawica wygrywa debatę publiczną w Polsce [Managing fear. How the right wing is winning the public debate in Poland], (Warsaw: Fundacja im. Stefana Batorego, 2019), 8.

16. „Polacy wobec problemu uchodźstwa” [Poles’ opinion on refugees], Komunikat z badań nr 81/2015, (Warsaw: CBOS, 2015).

17. „Stosunek do uchodźców w kontekście kryzysu imigracyjnego w Europie” [Poles’ attitudes toward refugees in the context of the migration crisis in Europe], Komunikat z badań nr 122/2015, (Warsaw: CBOS, 2015).

18. „Stosunek do przyjmowania uchodźców” [Poles’ attitudes toward hosting refugees], Komunikat z badań nr 169/2016, (Warsaw: CBOS, 2016).

19. Ibid.

20. „Stosunek do przyjmowania uchodźców” [Poles’ attitudes toward hosting refugees], Komunikat z badań nr 44/2017, (Warsaw: CBOS, 2017).

21. Victoria M. Esses, Stelian Medianu, Andrea S. Lawson, “Uncertainty, Threat, and the Role of the Media in Promoting the Dehumanization of Immigrants and Refugees,” Journal of Social Issues, 69 no. 3 (2013): 518-536, doi: 10.1111/josi.12027.

22. „Mowa nienawiści: spotkanie polityków i przedstawicieli środowiska muzułmańskiego w Biurze RPO” [Hate speech: meeting of politicians and representatives of the Muslim community at the Office of the Commissioner for Human Rights], last modified February 28, 2017, https://www.rpo.gov.pl/pl/content/mowa-nienawisci-spotkanie-politykow-i-przedstawicieli-srodowiska-muzulmanskiego-w-biurze-rpo (accessed: November 24, 2022).

23. Zofia Sikorska, „Bilewicz: PO? PiS? Nieważne. Tyle nienawiści nie było w Polsce od dawna” [Bilewicz: PO? PiS? Never mind. So much hatred has not been in Poland for a long time], last modified May 4, 2017, https://krytykapolityczna.pl/kraj/bilewicz-mowa-nienawisci/ (accessed November 24, 2022).

24. Ibid.

25. Mateusz Mazzini, „Kampania nienawiści wobec uchodźców ruszyła pełną parą” [Hate campaign against refugees has kicked into full swing], last modified August 20, 2021, https://www.polityka.pl/tygodnikpolityka/kraj/2130909,1,kampania-nienawisci-wobec-uchodzcow-ruszyla-pelna-para.read (accessed November 24, 2022).

26. Ibid.

27. Karolina Błaszkiewicz, „Skandaliczna wypowiedź posła PiS o mniejszościach: jaki jest stosunek Polaków do Malagaszów?” [Scandalous statement by Law and Justice MP on minorities: what is the attitude of Poles toward Malagasy?”], last modified April 28, 2016, https://natemat.pl/178449,skandaliczna-wypowiedz-posla-pis-o-mniejszosciach-jaki-jest-stosunek-polakow-do-malgaszow (accessed November 24, 2022).

28. Agnieszka Zagner, „W Polsce rośnie liczba napaści na muzułmanów” [Assaults on Muslims are on the rise in Poland], last modified January 26, 2019, https://www.polityka.pl/tygodnikpolityka/kraj/1780002,1,w-polsce-rosnie-liczba-napasci-na-muzulmanow.read (accessed November 24, 2022).

29. „Czy chcesz aby Polska przyjmowała bydło z Azji i Afryki? Armand Ryfiński o imigrantach” [Do you want Poland to accept cattle from Asia and Africa? Armand Ryfinski on immigrants], last modified September 7, 2015, https://tvn24.pl/polska/ryfinski-o-imigrantach-ra575210-3311157 (accessed November 24, 2022).

30. Paweł Cywiński, Filip Katner, Jarosław Ziółkowski, Zarządzanie strachem. Jak prawica wygrywa debatę publiczną w Polsce, 11-12.

31. „RPO kieruje spot wyborczy PiS do prokuratury. Mógł nawoływać do nienawiści” [The Commissioner for Human Rights refers PiS election spot to prosecutors. It could have incited hatred], last modified October 24, 2018, https://www.rpo.gov.pl/pl/content/rpo-kieruje-spot-wyborczy-pis-do-prokuratury-mogl-nawolywac-do-nienawisci (accessed November 24, 2022).

32. Neil Chakraborti, “Responding to hate crime: Escalating problems, continued failings,” Criminology & Criminal Justice, 18 no. 4 (2018): 387-404, doi: 10.1177/1748895817736096.

33. “O agresji wobec muzułmanów – Raport na dzień Islamu w Kościele” [About aggression against Muslims – Report for the Day of Islam], last modified January 24, 2019, https://www.nigdywiecej.org/komunikaty/komunikaty/175-rok-2019/4109-o-agresji-wobec-muzulmanow-raport-na-dzien-islamu-w-kosciele (accessed November 24, 2022).

34. Ibid.

35. „RPO kieruje spot wyborczy PiS do prokuratury. Mógł nawoływać do nienawiści” [The Commissioner for Human Rights refers PiS election spot to prosecutors. It could have incited hatred], last modified October 24, 2018, https://www.rpo.gov.pl/pl/content/rpo-kieruje-spot-wyborczy-pis-do-prokuratury-mogl-nawolywac-do-nienawisci (accessed November 24, 2022).

36. „Mieli szykować zamach na muzułmanów. Wzorem był dla nich Breivik [They were supposed to be preparing an attack on Muslims. The role model was Breivik], last modified November 13, 2019, https://www.polsatnews.pl/wiadomosc/2019-11-13/abw-zatrzymala-dwie-osoby-podejrzane-o-przygotowywanie-atakow-na-muzulmanow/ (accessed November 24, 2022).

37. Jennifer Paterson, Rupert Brown, Mark A. Walters, “The Short and Longer Term Impacts of Hate Crimes Experienced Directly, Indirectly and Through Media,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 45 no. 7 (2018): 994-1010. doi: 10.1177/0146167218802835.

38. Piotr Niemczyk, Pogarda. Dlaczego rośnie liczba przestępstw z nienawiści w Polsce? [Contempt. Why hate crimes are on the rise in Poland?] 1st ed. (Krakow: Znak, 2019), 76-78.

39. “Annual Review of the Human Rights Situation of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex People in Europe and Central Asia 2021” (ILGA, 2021), https://Annual-Review-Full-2021.pdf (accessed January 26, 2022).

40. Magdalena Swider, Mikołaj Winiewski, „Sytuacja społeczna osób LGBTA w Polsce. Raport za lata 2015-2016” [The Social Situation of LGBTA People in Poland. Report for 2015 – 2016], (Warsaw, Kampania Przeciw Homofobii, 2017), 71-82.

41. “Poland,” (OSCE – ODIHR, 2019), https://hatecrime.osce.org/poland (accessed: November 24, 2022).

42. Magdalena Swider, Mikołaj Winiewski, „Sytuacja społeczna osób LGBTA w Polsce. Raport za lata 2015-2016” [The Social Situation of LGBTA People in Poland. Report for 2015 – 2016], 76.

43. “Sprzeciw wobec homofobicznej mowy wykluczenia i pogardy – stanowisko Rzecznika Praw Obywatelskich” [Opposition to homophobic speech of exclusion and contempt – the statement of the Commissioner for Human Rights], https://www.rpo.gov.pl/pl/content/sprzeciw-wobec-homofobicznej-mowy-wykluczenia-i-pogardy-stanowisko-rzecznika-praw-obywatelskich, (accessed November 24, 2022).

44. Ibid.

45. „Sprawę wypowiedzi posła Przemysława Czarnka w TVP powinna zbadać Krajowa Rada Radiofonii i Telewizji” [The matter of MP Przemyslaw Chernek’s statements on TVP should be investigated by the National Broadcasting Council], last modified June 16, 2016, https://www.rpo.gov.pl/pl/content/rpo-slowa-pos%C5%82a-czarnka-w-tvp-powinna-zbadac-krajowa-rada-radiofonii, (accessed November 24, 2022).

46. “O agresji wobec muzułmanów – Raport na dzień Islamu w Kościele” [About aggression against Muslims – Report for the Day of Islam], last modified January 24, 2019, https://www.nigdywiecej.org/komunikaty/komunikaty/175-rok-2019/4109-o-agresji-wobec-muzulmanow-raport-na-dzien-islamu-w-kosciele (accessed November 24, 2022).

47. Ibid.

48. Ibid.

49. Ibid.

50. Ibid.

51. Piotr Niemczyk, Pogarda. Dlaczego rośnie liczba przestępstw z nienawiści w Polsce? [Contempt. Why hate crimes are on the rise in Poland?], 80.

52. „Pierwszy Marsz Równości w Białymstoku: petardy, wyzwiska, zatrzymani” [The First Equality March in Bialystok: firecrackers, challenges, detainees], last modified July 20, 2019, https://bialystok.wyborcza.pl/bialystok/7,35241,25013050,pierwszy-marsz-rownosci-w-bialymstoku-stan-wojenny-na-ulicach.html (accessed November 24, 2022).

53. „Kolejny atak na siedzibę organizacji pozarządowej działającej na rzecz praw osób LGBT” [Another attack on headquarters of LGBT organization}, last modified June 13, 2017, https://www.rpo.gov.pl/pl/content/kolejny-atak-na-siedzibe-organizacji-pozarzadowej-dzialajacej-na-rzecz-praw-osob-lgbt (accessed November 24, 2022).

54. “O agresji wobec muzułmanów – Raport na dzień Islamu w Kościele” [About aggression against Muslims – Report for the Day of Islam], last modified January 24, 2019, https://www.nigdywiecej.org/komunikaty/komunikaty/175-rok-2019/4109-o.

55. “General Policy. Recommendation No. 15 on Combating Hate Speech,” (ECRI, 2016), 16, https://www.coe.int/en/web/european-commission-against-racism-and-intolerance/recommendation-no.15 (accessed November 24, 2022).

56. Act of June 6, 1997 the Penal Code, c. 16.

57. 30 przykładów spraw “mowy nienawiści”, w których działania prokuratury budzą wątpliwości [30 examples of “hate speech” cases in which prosecutors’ actions are questionable], last modified January 23, 2019, https://www.rpo.gov.pl/pl/content/30-przykladow-mowy-nienawisci-w-ktorych-dzialania-prokuratury-budza-watpliwosci-RPO (accessed November 24, 2022).

58. „Polityczne akty zgonu.’ Sąd nakazuje prowadzenie śledztwa” [“Political death certificates”.’ Court orders investigation], las modified March 3, 2022, https://wiadomosci.dziennik.pl/polityka/artykuly/589247,mlodziez-wszechpolska-akt-zgonu-jaskowiak-adamowicz.html (accessed November 24, 2022).

59. „Powiesili na szubienicy zdjęcia europosłów. Prokuratura: nie doszło do przestępstwa” [They hung pictures of MEPs on the gallows. Prosecutor’s office statement: there was no crime committed], last modified October 26, 2019, https://tvn24.pl/katowice/katowice-zdjecia-europoslow-na-szubienicy-sledztwo-umorzone-ra988371-2308773 (accessed November 24, 2022).

60. „Marszałek Senatu: Hejt wobec rezydentów jest niestosowny i szkodliwy” [Senate Speaker: The heckling against residents is inappropriate and harmful], last modified October 16, 2017, https://wiadomosci.dziennik.pl/polityka/artykuly/560482,stanislaw-karczewski-potepiam-hejt-wobec-protestujacych-rezydentow.html (accessed November 24, 2022).

61. „21 postulatów protestujących osób z niepełnosprawnościami i ich rodziców – rok po strajku’ [21 demands of people with disabilities and their parents – one year after strike], last modified April 18, 2019, https://www.rpo.gov.pl/pl/content/21-postulatow-Ozn-rok-po (accessed November 24, 2022).

62. „Prezes ZNP: Zawieszamy strajk, ale walka trwa i będzie trwała do skutku!” [The chairman of the Union of Polish Teachers: We are suspending the strike, but the struggle continues and will continue until the end!], https://znp.edu.pl/prezes-znp-dzis-zawieszamy-strajk-ale-walka-trwa-i-bedzie-trwala-do-skutku/ (accessed November 24, 2022).

63. Grzegorz Sajór, „Pod dyktando hejterki” [Under the dictates of a female heathen], last modified December 11, 2019, https://www.press.pl/magazyn-press/artykul/59121,pod-dyktando-hejterki (accessed November 24, 2022).

64. Szymon Bijak, „Andrzej Duda w Katowicach o sędziach: ‘Mają swoje przywileje, ale mają także twarde obowiązki wobec społeczeństwa” [Andrzej Duda in Katowice commented on judges: ‘They have their privileges, but they also have hard duties to society], last modified January 18, 2020, https://katowice.naszemiasto.pl/andrzej-duda-w-katowicach-o-sedziach-maja-swoje-przywileje/ar/c1-7514517 (accessed November 24, 2022).

65. Anna Mierzyńska, „Prawica robi z Tuska diabła z krwią na rękach. To systematyczna kampania odczłowieczania” [The right wing is making Tusk a devil with blood on his hands. This is a systematic campaign of dehumanization], last modified June 4, 2019, https://oko.press/prawica-robi-z-tuska-diabla-z-krwia-na-rekach-to-systematyczna-kampania-odczlowieczania (accessed November 24, 2022).

66. Eryk Baczynski, „Wina Tuska, kara dla Tuska. Fala hejtu w obozie władzy” [Tusk’s fault, punishment for Tusk. A wave of hegemony in the party], last modified August 6, 2017, https://oko.press/wina-tuska-kara-dla-tuska-fala-hejtu-obozie-wladzy (accessed November 24, 2022).

67. Justyna Samolińska, „Obrońmy Owsiaka” [Let’s defend Owsiak], last modified, January 21, 2019, https://www.tygodnikprzeglad.pl/obronmy-owsiaka/ (accessed November 24, 2022).

68. Natalia Sawka, „Ekspert od mowy nienawiści: Politycy, którzy szczuli na Owsiaka czy Adamowicza, dziś proszą, by nie mówić o zbrodni politycznej. To hipokryzja” [Hate speech expert: Politicians who pissed on Owsiak or Adamowicz are today asking not to talk about a political crime. This is just a hypocrisy], last modified January 15, 2019, https://wyborcza.pl/7,162657,24365564,ekspert-od-mowy-nienawisci-to-oboz-rzadzacy-przyczynil-sie.html?disableRedirects=true (accessed November 24, 2022).

69. „Posłanka KO wygrała z hejterem w sieci. Prawnicy: postawa sądu cieszy” [Member of Parliament has won against online hejter. Lawyers: the attitude of the court pleases], last modified January 26, 2022, https://cyberdefence24.pl/polityka-i-prawo/poslanka-ko-wygrala-z-hejterem-w-sieci-prawnicy-postawa-sadu-cieszy (accessed November 24, 2022).

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