Chapter Twenty-One: Identities and security in East Asia

Abstract

Strategic links between Japan and Europe during the Cold War were limited. During this period the IISS helped bridge the gap between the two, exposing its membership base to the international affairs of Asia and Japan and providing Japanses scholars, strategists and diplomats with a platform from which to amplify their voices in the West. Analyses by these experts often appeared in IISS publications, but the Institute also gained key insights through its well-established conferences and lecture series. These initiatives illuminated Japanese strategic thinking and perspectives on contemporary critical issues in Japan’s and Asia’s foreign, security and defence policy.

This Adelphi book, through its collection of earlier analysis, helps the reader to understand the evolution of Japanese strategic thought from the 1960s until today, and shines a light on the continuities and changes in this thinking. New, original analysis of the material seeks to identify areas where such thinking was prescient and remains relevant to the contemporary strategic environment, and other areas where predictions failed or assumptions were proved wrong. These new essays were also informed by interviews of Japanese senior scholars and diplomats who spent time with the IISS. This book seeks to frame, educate and guide strategic thinking on the most pressing issues of today, both in and outside Japan and Asia, and will be of great interest to analysts, practitioners and students of international affairs.

Notes

1 See, for example, C. Fred Bergsten, ‘A Strategic Architecture for the Pacific’, in Michael N. Bellows (ed.), Asia in the TwentyFirst Century: Evolving Strategic Priorities (Washington DC: National Defense University (NDU), 1994), p. 258; Jose T. Almonte, ‘Ensuring Security the “ASEAN Way”’, Survival, vol. 39, no. 4, Winter 1997–98, pp. 80–92; and Yoichi Funabashi, Asia Pacific Fusion Japan’s Role in APEC (Tokyo: Chuo Koronsha, 1995).

2 See, for example, Kent E. Calder, Pacific Defense – Arms, Energy, and America’s Future in Asia (Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 1996); Barry Buzan and Gerry Segal, ‘Rethinking East Asian Security’, Survival, vol. 36, no. 2, Summer 1994, pp. 3–21; and Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996).

3 Yoshibumi Wakamiya, ‘Asianism in Japan’s Postwar Polities’, in Tadashi Yamamoto and Charles E. Morrison (eds), Japan and the United States in Asia Pacific: The Challenge for Japan in Asia (Tokyo: Japan Centre for International Exchange, 1995), p. 16.

4 See Naoki Tanaka, Ajia no Jidai (Tokyo: Toyo Keizai Shinpo-sha, 1996), chapter 2.

5 ‘The Constitution of Japan, Chapter II’, www.ntt.co.jp/japanconstitution.

6 For an overview of Japan’s 82 Koro Bessho security dilemma up to the early 1980s, see Yukio Sato, ‘The Evolution of Japanese Security Policy’, in Robert O’Neill (ed.), Security in East Asia (Aldershot, Hants: Gower Publishers for the IISS, 1984), pp. 19–61.

7 See ‘Statement at Williamsburg’, www.library.utoronto.ca/www/g7/83secur.htm.

8 Kazuo Ogura, ‘Japan’s Asia Policy, Past and Future’, Japan Review of International Affairs, vol. 10, no. 4, Winter 1996, pp. 1–15. When he wrote this article, Ogura was Japan’s Deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs.

9 See Mike M. Mochizuki, ‘Japanese Security Policy’, in Michael J. Green and Mike M. Mochizuki, The US–Japan Security Alliance in the Twenty-First Century (New York: Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), 1998), pp. 25–52.

10 Mie Kawashima, ‘Hashimoto Calls on Nations “To Build Trust” with Beijing’, Kyodo News, Tokyo, 14 January 1997, in Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), Daily Report, EAS-97-009,15 January 1997.

11 1992 Diplomatic Blue Book: Japan’s Diplomatic Activities (Tokyo: Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA), 1991), p. 21.

12 The four principles governing Japan’s Overseas Development Assistance (ODA) are: ‘1) Environmental conservation and development should be pursued in tandem. 2) Any use of ODA for military purposes or for aggravation of international conflicts should be avoided. 3) Full attention should be paid to trends in recipient countries’ military expenditures, their development and production of mass destruction weapons and missiles, their export and import of arms, etc., so as to maintain and strengthen international peace and stability, and from the viewpoint that developing countries should place appropriate priorities in the allocation of their resources on their own economic and social development. 4) Full attention should be paid to efforts for promoting democratization and introduction of a marketorientated economy, and the situation regarding the securing of basic human rights and freedoms in the recipient countries.’ See Japan’s Official Development Assistance, Annual Report 1996 (Tokyo: MOFA, 1997), p. 211.

13 ‘New National Defense Program Outline’, www.jda.go.jp/policy/f_work/jndp/l_2_e.html.

14 ‘Completion of the Review of the Guidelines for US-Japan Defense Cooperation’, www.jda.go.jp/policy/f_work/sisin4_.htm.

15 Hitoshi Tanaka, ‘“Pacifist Japan” Reconsidered’, Caiko Forum, no. 107, July 1997, pp. 35–40. Also see Tanaka, ‘An Inside Look at the Defense Guidelines Review’, interview with Hisayoshi Ina, Japan Echo, vol. 24, no. 5, December 1997, pp. 30–33.

16 On this debate, see Kenichiro Sasae, Rethinking Japan-US Relations, Adelphi Paper 292 (London: Brassey’s for the IISS, 1994), p. 55.

17 Mochizuki, ‘Japanese Security Policy’.

18 Statement by Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama (15 August 1995)’, www.mofa.go.jp/announce/press/pm/murayama/9508.html.

19 ‘Japan–Republic of Korea Joint Declaration: A New Japan– Republic of Korea Partnership towards the Twenty-First Century, October 1998’, www.mofa.go.jp.

20 In this context, see Funabashi, Asia Pacific Fusion, especially chapter 13.

21 Michael Richardson, ‘Beijing Plays Key Role as East Asians Improve Ties’, International Herald Tribune, 24 November 1997, p. 8.

22 ‘Sino-US Joint Statement October 29,1997’, Beijing Review, 17–23 November 1997.

23 Lee Kim Chew, ‘S-E Asia Gets East Asia’s Vote of Confidence’, Straits Times, 17 December 1997, p. 1.

24 ‘Jiang Vows China Will Be Good Neighbor to ASEAN’, International Herald Tribune, 17 December 1997, p. 4.

25 See, for example, Caspar Weinberger and Peter Schweizer, The Next War (Washington DC: Regnery Publishing, 1997); and Richard Bernstein and Ross H. Munro, The Coming Conflict with China (New York: Knopf, 1997).

26 David Shambaugh, ‘Chinese Hegemony over East Asia by 2015?’, Korean Journal of Defense Analysis, vol. 9, no. 1, Summer 1997, p. 28.

27 Joseph S. Nye, ‘China’s Re-emergence and the Future of the Asia-Pacific’, Survival, vol. 39, no. 4, Winter 1997–98, pp. 65–79. Nye, a strong proponent of engagement, shaped the Clinton administration’s China policy as Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs in 1994–95. For a variation on the containment theme, see Gerald Segal, ‘East Asia and the “Constrainment” of China’, International Security, vol. 20, no. 4, Spring 1996, pp. 107–35.

28 Alastair Iain Johnston, ‘China’s New “Old Thinking”’, International Security, vol. 20, no. 3, Winter 1995–96, pp. 5–42; Tomoyuki Kojima, ‘China’s Present Condition and Future Outlook’, Asia-Pacific Review, vol. 4, no. 2, AutumnWinter 1997, p. 106.

29 ‘Kiyoshi Tanaka, ‘20 Seiki -Don’na; Idai Datta No Ka’, Yomiuri Shimbun, 8 February 1998, p. 6.

30 Denny Roy, ‘Hegemon on the Horizon?’, International Security, vol. 19, no. 1, Summer 1994, pp. 149–68.

31 Lee Kuan Yew, Keynote Address, IISS Conference, Singapore, September 1997.

32 Thomas J. Christensen, ‘Chinese Realpolitik’, Foreign Affairs, vol. 75, no. 5, September–October 1996, p. 44. Also see Denny Roy, ‘The Foreign Policy of GreatPower China’, Contemporary South-East Asia, vol. 19, no. 2, September 1997, especially pp. 125–27.

33 ‘“Economic Power has the Right to be a Military Power”, Says the Chinese Deputy Chief of Staff’, Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 30 April 1980, p. 2.

34 Then Chinese Vice-Foreign Minister Tang Jixuan in discussion with Japanese Ambassador to China Yoshiyasu Sato. See ‘SinoJapanese Relations in the TwentyFirst Century’, Gaiko Forum, no. 110, September 1997, p. 32.

35 ‘Security Dialogue Between Japan, US and China Begins’, Asahi Shimbun, 16 July 1998, p. 2.

36 Calder, Pacific Defense.