Health and therapeutic potentials of Ocimum essential oils: a review on isolation, phytochemistry, biological activities, and future directions

Figures & data

Table 1. Isolation Techniques, Condition, and Yield of African and Holy Basil Essential Oil.

Class of basil	Isolation techniques	Isolation time (minutes)	Plant materials	Yields (% w/w)	References
African basil	HD	180	Dried leaves	1.66	(15)
	HD	180	Dried leaves	0.18	(16)
	SD	90	Fresh Leaves	0.125	(17)
	SD	180	Dried leaves	1.26	(18)
	HD	165	Dried leaves	0.92	(19)
	SD	162	Dried leaves	1.33	(19)
	SFME	52	Dried leaves	1.84	(19)
	HD	120	Dried leaves and inflorescences	1.8	(18)
Holy basil	SD	60	Leaves	0.68	(13)
	HD	60		0.33	(13)
	HD	150	Vegetative part	0.98	(20)
	HD	150	Full flowering stage	1.1	(20)
	HD	150	Flora budding	0.92	(20)

HD – Hydrodistillation; SD-Steam distillation; SFME- solvent-free microwave extraction.

Table 2. Phytochemicals of African Basil Essential Oil (OGEO) with Abundance > 1% (Adapted from Chukwuma Et Al. ¹²).

S/n	Phytochemicals	Abundance range (%)	Isolation methods	Analytical methods	Molecular formulae	MW (g/mol)	References
1.	cis-Ocimene	0.43 to 13.89	Steam distl. & Hydro distl.	GC/MS	C10H16	136.23	(17,18,26)
2.	Eucalyptol/1,8-Cineole	0.1 to 21.91	Hydro distl. & steam distl.	GC/MS	C10H18O	154.25	(16,18,24,26)
3.	α -Pinene	0.08 to 2.4	Steam distl. & Hydro distl.	GC/MS	C10H16	136.23	(16,18,24,26)
4.	Trans-Ocimene	0.10 to 1.75	Hydro distl. & steam distl.	GC/MS	C10H16	136.23	(17,18,24,26)
5.	β-Pinene	0.43 to 1.25	Steam distl. & Hydro distl.	GC/MS	C10H16	136.23	(15,16,18,26)
6.	Terpinen-4-ol	0.16 to 1.13	Hydro distl.	GC/MS	C10H18O	154.25	(15,16,26)
7.	Thymol	18.7	Steam distl.	GC/MS	C10H14O	150.22	(18)
8.	Linalool	0.47 to 32.95	Steam distl. & Hydro distl.	GC/MS	C10H18O	154.25	(16–18,24)
9.	α-Terpineol	0.31 to 3.36	Hydro distl.	GC/MS	C10H18O	154.25	(24,26)
10.	Sabinene	0.56 to 1.2	Hydro distl. & steam distl.	GC/MS	C10H16	136.23	(15,16,18,26)
11.	α-cis-Bergamotene	0.03 to 1.07	Steam distl. & Hydro distl.	GC/MS	C15H24	204.35	(16,17)
12.	Eugenol	7.42 to 74.83	Steam distl. & Hydro distl.	GC/MS	C10H12O2	164.2	(15–17)
13.	(Z,E)-α-Farnesene	5.58	Steam distl.	GC/MS	C15H24	204.35	(17)
14.	α-Copaene	0.85 to 1.22	Steam distl. & Hydro distl.	GC/MS	C15H24	204.35	(17,18,26)
15.	Caryophyllene oxide	0.05 to 1.0	Steam distl. & Hydro distl.	GC/MS	C15H24O	220.35	(17,18,24)
16.	α-Cadinol	0.06 to 5.18	Steam distl. & Hydro distl.	GC/MS	C15H26O	222.37	(16,17)
17.	β-Selinene	2.82 to 5.0	Hydro distl.	GC/MS	C15H24	204.35	(16,18,24,26)
18.	Germacrene D	0.1 to 4.76	Steam distl. & Hydro distl.	GC/MS	C15H24	204.35	(16,18)
19.	β-Caryophyllene	1.68 to 2.67	Hydro distl. & steam distl.	GC/MS	C15H24	204.35	(16–18,24,26)
20.	γ-Cadinene	0.04 to 1.05	Steam distl.	GC/MS	C15H24	204.35	(16,17)
21.	γ-Muurolene	11.55	Steam distl.	GC/MS	C15H24	204.35	(17)
22.	Trans-α-Bergamotene	0.2 to 4.12	Steam distl.	GC/MS	C15H24	204.35	(17,18)

Table 3. Phytochemicals of Holy Basil Essential Oil with Relative Abundance > 0.5% (Adapted from Chukwuma Et Al. ¹²).

S/N	Phytochemicals	Percentage abundance	Isolation method	Analytical methods	MW (g/mol)	Molecular Formulae	References
1.	α-Pinene	0.41–0.61	Hydro distl.	GC/MS	136.23	C10H16	(20,29)
1.	p-Cymene	0.83	Hydro distl.	GC/MS	134.22	C10H14	(29)
3.	Eucalyptol/1,8-Cineole	0.01–19.41	Hydro distl. & steam distl.	GC/MS	154.25	C10H18O	(20,22)
4.	Thymol	0.82	Hydro distl.	GC/MS	150.22	C10H14O	(29)
5.	Sabinene	0.54	Hydro distl.	GC/MS	136.23	C10H16	(29)
6.	γ-Terpinene	0.56	Hydro distl.	GC/MS	136.23	C10H16	(29)
7.	Limonene	0.71	Hydro distl.	GC/MS	136.23	C10H16	(29)
8.	α-Terpinolene	0.74	Hydro distl.	GC/MS	136.23	C10H16	(29)
9.	Carvacrol	2.04	Hydro distl.	GC/MS	150.22	C10H14O	(29)
10.	Methyl eugenol	92.4	Steam distl.	GC/MS	178.23	C11H14O2	(22)
11.	Eugenol	2.4–61.30	Hydro distl. & steam distl.	GC/MS	164.2	C10H12O2	(20,22,29)
12.	β-Selinene	1.34	Hydro distl.	GC/MS	204.35	C15H24	(29)
13.	α-Humulene	0.22–1.29	Hydro distl.	GC/MS	204.35	C15H24	(20,29)
14.	β-Caryophyllene	11.89	Hydro distl.	GC/MS	204.35	C15H24	(29)
15.	Germacrene D	9.14	Hydro distl.	GC/MS	204.35	C15H24	(29)
16.	β-Elemene	0.4–7.7	Hydro distl. & steam distl.	GC/MS	204.35	C15H24	(20,22,29)
17.	α-Cubebene	2.54	Hydro distl.	GC/MS	204.35	C15H24	(29)
18.	β-Pinene	0.06–1.53	Hydro distl.	GC/MS	136.23	C10H16	(20,29)

Hydro Distl. – Hydro distillation, Steam Distl. – Steam Distillation, GC/MS – Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry.

Figure 1. Essential Oil from African and Holy Basil and Their Biological Activities.

Table 4. Antidiabetic, Anti-Inflammatory, Antinociceptive/Anesthetic Activities of African and Holy Basil Essential Oils.

Class of basil	Biological activities	Purified or characterized compounds	Method of isolation	Experimental model	Assays and bioactivities	References
African basil	Antidiabetic	Eugenol	HD	In vitro, in vivo, and histopathology (mice)	Inhibition of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and 38% reduction in glucose level	(34)
	Antidiabetic	Eugenol	HD	In vivo (mice)	Inhibition of the α-glucosidase activity	(35)
	Glucose-lowering capacity and Anaesthesia	Uncharacterized Essential Oil	HD	In vivo (Oreochromis niloticus)	90 mg L^−1 prevented the increase in plasma glucose 150 mg L^−1 caused anesthesia and recovery within 1–4.5 h	(36)
Holy basil	Anti-diabetic	α-linolenic acid	HD and Soxhlet Extraction	In vivo (rats)	Blood glucose lowering effect and increase in insulin levels at 0.04654 mg/g/day	(37)
	Antidiabetic	Uncharacterized Essential Oil (Tulasi oil)	Procured	In vitro inhibition assays (α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and Glucose Uptake by Yeast Cells)	At a dosage of 50–150 µg/ml, α-amylase inhibition (41–61%) α-glucosidase inhibition (45–66%) Glucose uptake for 5–25 mM (17–85%)	(38)
African basil	Anti-inflammatory	Leave essential oil	HD	In vitro MTT cytotoxic assay and anti-inflammatory activities on human gingival fibroblasts cell	A dose of 5–20 μg/Ml caused a decrease in baseline concentration of PGE2 by 23–43%. Although the baseline secretion of IL-6 and IL-8 was not affected	(39)
	Antinociceptive	Essential oil	HD	In vivo (Oreochromis niloticus)	At a dosage of 30–300 mg L^−1, the recovery of blood parameters and oxidative stress after anesthesia induction	(36)
	Antinociceptive	Essential oil (eugenol and β-bisabolene)	HD	In vivo (Rhamdia quelen)	At a dosage of 10–300 mg L^−1, GABAergic-like action and development of tolerance after anesthesia	(40)
	Anti-hypernociceptive	Essential oil (eugenol and myrcene)	HD	In vivo (Adult C57BL/6 J mice)	Dosage: 10, 20, or 40 mg/kg EO fraction and 1, 5, or 10 mg/kg eugenol or myrcene (for 14 days) Positive to Von Frey mechanical and hot plate thermal, anti-hypernociceptive test Reduce IL-1β in larva cells.	(41,42)
	Antinociceptive	Essential oil (Trans-caryophyllene)	Procured	Murine model (opioid and endocannabinoid systems)	Dosage: 1, 5, or 10 mg/kg, p.o Activities: Hot plate test (thermal anti-nociception) – increased latency to jump from the hot plate within 1–4 h of treatment Formalin test (anti-inflammatory pain) - Decrease in expression of IL-1β levels	(43)
Holy Basil	Anti-inflammatory	Uncharacterized Essential oil	HD Leaves and flowering shrubs,	In vitro (COX-2 inhibition on THP-1 cells) PGE2 kit assay on THP-1 cells	At a dosage of 100 µg/mL, COX-2 inhibition (40%) PGE2 inhibition (99%)	(44)
	Anti-inflammatory	Uncharacterized Essential oil	HD	In vitro Lymphocytes (1 × 10^5 cells/well)	At a dosage of 50–250 μg/mL EO, a 100% MMP-9 inhibition by gelatin zymography and dose-dependent down-regulation of MMP-9 expression	(45)
	Hepatic and renal function	Essential oil nano-emulsion containing linalool majorly (53.9%) and methyl chavicol (12.63%)	HD and nano-emulsion	In vivo (Male Sprague – Dawley rats)	At a dosage of 5 mg/kg b.w, there was a significant elevation in AST, ALT), D.BIL, T.BIL, urea, uric acid, and creatinine and a decrease in Alb and TP. Increase in renal and hepatic antioxidant enzymes (CAT and SOD)	(46)
African basil	Anesthetic	Essential oil containing majorly Eugenol (43.3%), 1,8-cineole (28.2%), beta-selinene (5.5%), cis-ocimene (3.7%); beta-caryophyllene (3.7%)	HD with Clevenger apparatus for 4 h	In vivo (Tambaqui fish)	Dosage: 15–300 mg L^− 1 ActivitesA concentration of 15 mg L^− 1 or more showed anesthetic and anti-helminthic effects in the fish.	(47)
	Anesthetic	Essential oil	SD	In vivo (pink shrimp Farfantepenaeus paulensis)	Dosage: 50–250 µL L-1 Induction of anesthesia at 10 min induction for 100 and 150 µL L-1 The conc 250 µL L-1 resulted in 30% mortality	(48)
	Anesthetic	Essential oil	SD	In vivo (juvenile matrinxã fish)	Treatment: 20–80 mg/L An increase in the conc of EO reduces the induction time. Induction time at 20 mg L-1 was 10 min, and recovery time of 2 mins.	(49)
	Anesthetic	Essential oil	SD	In vivo (juvenile silver catfish (Rhamdia quelen))	Treatment: 70 or 300 mg/L An induction time of 10 min: Hyperglycemic effect within 1-4 h of anesthesia and a lowering of glucose level after 8 h; Anesthesia prevented Na+ efflux and promoted a net balance of K+ and CL- influx and efflux at different time	(40,50)
	Anesthetic	Essential oil	HD	In vivo (Lophiosilurus alexandri)	Treatment: 0, 10, 30, 90, 150, and 300 mg/L The use of EO at a conc of 90 and 150 mg L^−1 was ideal for the	(51)
	Anesthesia	Essential oil	HD	In vivo (South American catfish Pseudoplatystoma reticulatum)	Treatment: 100–200 mg/L From the study, the optimum conc for anesthesia was 187.81 mg L^−1 and an induction time of 222.02 s	(52)

HD – Hydrodistillation; SD-Steam distillation.

Table 5. Antioxidant and Cardioprotective Activities of African and Holy Basil Essential Oils.

Class of basil	Biological activities	Purified or characterized compound	Method of extraction	Experimental model	Assays and bioactivities	References
African basil	Cardio-protective	Essential oil (eugenol)	HD	In vivo (Wistar rats)	Treatment: 1, 5, 10, and 20 mg/kg Effect on vascular smooth muscles. Mean arterial pressure (MAP) and heart rate (HR)	(61)
	Cardio-protective	Essential oil (eugenol)	HD	In vivo (deoxycorticosterone acetate- hypertensive rats)	Treatment: 1–20 mg/kg EO or 1–10 mg/kg Eugenol Effect on vascular smooth muscles	(62)
	Cardioprotective and Vaso-relaxant	Essential oil	HD	In vitro (isolated Aortas and mesenteric vascular beds	Treatment: 3–300 µg/mL EOOG on the contracted aorta Relaxes the ionic contraction induced by phenylephrine (0.1 µmol/L) - Decreased the perfusion pressure induced by noradrenaline (6 µmol/L) in mesenteric vascular beds.	(63)
Holy basil	Cardio-protective	Essential oil	HD	In vivo (rats)	Treatment: 80 µl/kg BW/day for 7 weeks Serum lipid profile, liver and heart lipid peroxides, and antioxidant enzymes	(64)
	Cardio-protective	Seed oil	Cold maceration in petroleum ether	In vivo (rabbits)	Treatment: 0.8 mg/kg body weight/day Cholesterol, TAG and LDL + VLDL	(65)
African basil	Antioxidant	EO from leaves Major constituents were eugenol (65.65 ± 0.57 to 85.71 ± 0.55%) and Z)-β-ocimene	HD	DPPH· assay	A yield of about 0.17 to 1.07% (w/w) An IC50 of 2.04 ± 0.04 to 3.02 ± 0.03 μg/mL. based on seasonal variations in one year	(66)
	Antioxidant and antibacterial	Nano-Emulsion of Essential oil from leaves containing majorly eugenol (51.19%); 1,8-Cineole (29.55%); and β-Selinene (5.63%).	HD	ABTS Assay	60% ABTS radical inhibition	(67)
	Antioxidant and fungicidal	EO from leaves having majorly p-Cymene (3.4–22.5%); γ-Terpinene (21–37.0%); and Thymol (33.2–449.7%)	HD	DPPH assay;	DPPH scavenging activities (68.83–73.85%) at a concentration of 0.15 mg mL^−1	(68)
Holy basil	Antioxidant	EO from the Leaves with majorly caryophyllene oxide (23.8%), β-caryophyllene (18.2%), germacrene D (14.6%), α-copaene (14.4%), and eugenol (10.0%).	HD	DPPH assay; ABTS assay LP Inhibition (%); and TPC (mg/g)	DPPH (SC50) − 41.8 ± 3.8 μg/mL; ABTS (SC50) − 189.5 ± 1.4 μg/mL; Inhibition of lipid peroxidation − 61.1 ± 5.2%; Total phenolic content − 109.9 mg/g	(69)
	Oxidative damage and genotoxicity protection	EO from Leaves with Linalool (53.9%); Methyl chavicol (12.63%); γ-Muurolene (3.7%); Aciphyllene (4.4%), and β-Elemene (3.47%)	HD	Effect on in vivo antioxidant enzymes (GPx, CAT, and SOD)	Holy basil Essential oil and its nano-emulsion caused the antioxidant enzymes to improve from the compromised stated when induced with TiO2-NPs (GPx (U/g)- 12.02–30.82; CAT (mU/g) − 2.87–5.54; and SOD (U/g) 14.24–21.45	(46)
	Antioxidant	EO from Leaves with β-bisabolene (24.45–31.38%), 4-[(1Z)-1,5-dimethyl-1,4-hexadien-1-yl]-1-methylcyclo-hexene (19.61–25.56%), eucalyptol (13.42–17.12%)	HD	DPPH assay	DPPH scavenging activities were 96.1–96.48% at 100 µg/mL Antioxidant activities were comparable to ascorbic acid (98.08% at 100 µg/mL)	(70)
	Antioxidant and antimicrobial	Uncharacterized EO from the leaves	HD	DPPH assay	At a concentration of 10–50 µg/µL, the DPPH scavenging activities were 39–56%	(71)
	Antioxidant (Arbuscular mycorrhiza stimulation)	EO from Leaves with β-caryophyllene (9.12–22.91%); Eugenol (23.88–47.99%); Methyleugenol (5.06 − 15.58 %); Germacrene A (0.2–6.63%)	HD	DPPH assay, OH-radical scavenging, NO assay scavenging;	Arbuscular mycorrhiza symbiosis caused an 8.4–9.8% and 18.7–36.1% increase in DPPH and OH^− radical scavenging activities. More so, about 15.8 and 7.1% increase was reported by the association	(72)

DPPH − 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activities; ABTS − 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) radical cation scavenging activities; NO assay – Nitric oxide scavenging activities: LP – Lipid peroxidation; TPC – Total Phenolic Content; GPx – Glutathione Peroxidase; HD – Hydrodistillation; EO – Essential oil.

Table 6. Cytotoxicity and Anticancer Activities of African and Holy Basil Essentials Oils.

Class of basil	Biological activities	Purified or characterized compound	Extraction method	Cell lines	Assays/Treatment/Dosage	bioactivities	References
African basil	Cytotoxicity	Uncharacterized EO from aerial parts	HD	human gingival fibroblasts	Cytotoxicity assay − 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide assay; - ELISA and EIA for assay of pro-inflammatory markers (IL-6, IL-8, and PGE2).	IC50 for cytotoxicity was 36 ± 2 µg/mL Decrease the baseline concentration of PGE2 by 43% at 20 μg/mL concentration and had no effects on induced IL-6 and IL-8	(83)
Holy basil	Anticancer activities by inducing apoptosis	EO from leaves with GC/MS identified caryophyllene (25.85%) and α-pinene (11.66%) as the major compounds	HD	human gastric cancer cell line (AGS)	The viability of cells was determined by MTT assay, while inhibition of metastasis was determined by cell migration and invasion assays. qRT-PCR was used to estimate the expression of apoptosis-related gene	Decreased cancer cell viability in a dose-dependent manner (IC50 163.42 μg/mL) The EO inhibits cell migration and induces chromatin condensation, fragmentation, and apoptotic cell death. Upregulation of apoptotic genes such as TP53, BAX, and BAK. While anti-apoptotic genes were downregulated (BCL-2 and BCL-xL) Upregulation of CASP8, CASP9, and CASP3	(82)
Holy basil	Anticancer- Differentiation-inducing effects	EO from the leaves has major compounds such as camphor, cineol, eugenol, limonene, and rosmarinic acid	HD	Human rectum adenocarcinoma cells (RCM-1)	Assay for differentiation-inducing effects by estimating the duct formation numbers and sizes.	Fractions of duct formation index of 4.03 ± 0.26	(70)
	Anticancer (Apoptosis of breast cancers)	Uncharacterized EO from leaves	HD	Michigan cancer foundation-7 (MCF-7) cells	The apoptotic study was performed using flow cytometry analysis (propidium iodide (PI) and Hoechst staining models)	Inhibition of cancer cell proliferation (IC50 = 170 μg/ml). Treatment with EO at 50–500 μg/ml concentration increased apoptotic cell proliferation (16–84%). Upregulation of apoptotic genes p53, Bid, and elevate the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2.	(45,84)
	Apoptosis induction (cell death)	EO from leaves having an abundance of methyl chavicol (MET CHAV) and linalool (LIN)	Hydrodistillation	Annexin-V-FITC labeling	Annexin-V-FITC labeling was used to study apoptotic cell death due to the externalization of membrane phosphatidylserine (PS) A transmission electron microscope was used to observe morphological alteration. DNA fragmentation by TUNEL assay.	They observed morphological features of apoptosis, TUNEL-positive, chromatin condensation, and margination, nuclear fragmentation and envelope separation, cytoplasmic shrinkage, and plasma membrane blebbing at the conc of MIC and higher.	(85)

HD – Hydrodistillation; Essential oil-EO.

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