Psychological stress and psychological well-being among sports coaches: A close proximity longitudinal daily diary study

Figures & data

Table 1. Coach demographics.

Coach (pseudonym)	Age (years)	Gender (M/F)	Sport	Occupational group	Coaching experience (years)	Volume of coaching (hours per week)
Alan	42	M	Track and Field Athletics	Part-time	19	14
Arthur	52	M	Race walking	Part-time	29	16
Karen	25	F	Gymnastics	Part-time	2	4
Lewis	23	M	Football	Part-time	7	6
Oscar	31	M	Field Hockey	Full-time	12	15

Table 2. Alan’s trajectory pathway.

Experience	Day	Stressor	Primary appraisal	Coping	PWB
Preparing for major events and champion-ships	1	Athlete-related “Today was stressful as I was waiting on [athlete]’s Commonwealth Youth selection call. It was something that was out of our hands now, [athlete] did everything required of him for selection, and it was now does to the selectors”	Threat “Had we done enough? What if he didn’t make the team?”	Self-reliance “It was a tough one to cope with and at times I did think about calling the endurance selector because I was concerned for my athlete about the outcome of selection”	Personal growth “The athlete made the team and things calmed down”
	4	Athlete-related “Want athletes to run well especially [athlete] to run a quick [event distance]. You want the athletes to achieve their goals so you just hope you have prepared them well”	Challenge “You want the athletes to achieve their goals so you just hope you have prepared them well. It is also nice nerves too before they race as it is exciting”	Information seeking “I try to just enjoy the races and socialize/network with other coaches.” Support seeking “It is also nice to catch up with the athlete’s friends and families”	Autonomy “It was an unexpected late night for me having to drive back to [city]”
	7	Athlete-related “Last sessions on the track before the British Championships at the weekend. Just wanted the guys to have good sessions as it was their last one before the weekend”	Benefit “On how the session went with the athletes – it was very positive”	Problem solving “I kept focused on the session and the athletes”	Autonomy “I was more relaxed on this stressor as it was in my control”
	9	Athlete-related “I am thinking about the British Trials at the weekend. It is a big weekend for the athletes around qualifying for the worlds”	Challenge “Hoping you have done it all. We have done all we can”	Escape “Keep busy with coaching and work”	Relationships with others “This stress does take a lot out of me, plus my wife at times too”
	11	Athlete-related “British Trials heats. You just want the athletes to perform and make the finals”	Harm/loss “It was a tough day a couple [of athletes] just missed out on making the final” Benefit “I got one through with the biggest chance of going to the Worlds”	Escape “Keep busy, chatting to other people and also watching other events” Self-reliance “It is nice to have a cold beer to reflect on the day”	No reported impact on PWB
	12	Athlete-related “British Trials finals day. It is all about finishing in the top two once you have the world qualifying time. It’s all down to the athlete now!”	Challenge “Made sure the athlete knew what they had to do, making doubly sure they knew the plan too. Once the warm-up started, the nerves kicked in”	Escape “I kept in control by talking about other things”	No reported impact on PWB “Again, I was shattered and ready for some rest and a good night’s sleep”
	14	Athlete-related “[Athlete] saw the physio today so I am hoping he can do a session today. I would like [athlete] to do a session today as this would give him a lot of confidence for the weekend but also make sure the problem is sorted”	No reported appraisal “I just played things by ear and listened to what [athlete] had to say about his own body”	Negotiation “Listened to what [athlete] had to say … he did the session and finished it with a big smile on his face”	No reported impact on PWB
	17	Organizational “5am start to my day driving to [city] for the [competition]. A lack of sleep due to a late night and an early start. Athletes are performing at the competitions. I want the athletes to be happy and achieve their personal goals”	Challenge “I got them [athletes] here with my coaching now they need to do their bit. I will help where I can”	Escape “Loads of coffees and kept busy throughout the day” Self-reliance “Had a good chat with them [athletes] before and after their race to make sure they were happy”	Environmental mastery “It is normal daily stress this for me.”

Table 3. Arthur’s trajectory pathway.

Experience	Day	Stressor	Primary appraisal	Coping	PWB
Preparing for major events and champion-ships	1	Athlete-related “Sport science support focus on preparation for World Championships including body composition intervention and training camp preparation”	Challenge “I came away from the session feeling positive and enthused”	Information seeking “I always learning something from the sports nutritionist”	Purpose in life “The team gets a little stronger, which builds my confidence”
	9	Athlete-related “Mix of training session with some athletes preparing to compete”	Challenge “Always a challenging time of the year as I am working with each athlete’s individual competition schedule”	Problem-solving “I’m on top of this. I spoke to each athlete about the coming days activity”	Environmental mastery “I have to maintain a high level of communication/organization to ensure effective functioning of athletes and me”
	17	Athlete-related “Most of the athletes I coach competed today. Four secured qualification for the World Athletics Championships and one for the Commonwealth Games”	Benefit “This is an expression of what I work towards as a coach. It is the challenge I work for. Today was a delight as most athletes achieved their goal for the competition”	Support seeking “I share the ups and downs with the athletes. Accommodation I’ve learned to not let results define me, i.e., I know I’m a good coach”	Environmental mastery “I’m very happy with the outcome today and I am very proud to coach this group. Few coaches ever achieve this level of performance and I’m delivering year on year now”
	24	Athlete-related “Athletes competed in 5000 m at World Championships trials. Results include new women’s UK record and two men inside the old men’s record, with winner setting a world leading time for 2017!”	Benefit “Challenge executed! Key markers ahead of the World Championships in six weeks. Enjoyed the experience and the congratulations of coaching colleagues”	Support seeking “Enjoyed the experiences and the congratulations of coaching colleagues”	Environmental mastery “P-O-S-I-T-I-V-E. This has been an impressive set of results over recent weeks”
Admin and NGB-related tasks	3	Organizational “No coaching today. Two hours admin. Writing training schedules for coming week and messaging athletes to check they have entered races”	Benefit “I do enjoy this task – there is always more positive than negative”	Negotiation “I set plans/goals for the week which are part of an annual plan. I use a shared software program which athletes update online via an app or computer. I identify opportunities for athletes to train together”	Environmental mastery “Whatever day I do this, I always complete it early evening to let me switch off with family and a film/tv.” Relationships with others “Overall is has a positive impact as it reaffirms partnership with athletes”
	5	Organizational “[Name of organization]: I’m working with events in parks who today asked for further risk assessments from contractors I have engaged with for a major event in 12 days time … I had to contact four companies to ask them to submit documentation to the council … the lady from the council today me this was her first time working on an event and would follow the rules to the letter”	Harm/loss “Having already had the event approved and submitting detailed risk assessments etc. I was disappointed to be asked for repeat information and was embarrassed to ask for it at this late stage”	Self-reliance “I did not enjoy the conversation and worked hard to remain polite. I want to repeat this event in the future and I support the need for a risk assessment etc.” Opposition “I felt angry and powerless in the face of an additional layer of bureaucracy”	Personal growth “Organizing events like this is really stressful. I need to reflect on whether to do this again when I do it alongside other work”
	5	Organizational “[Organization]: funders of the event are not responding to emails and calls. The NGB needs to support paperwork to the [names organization] to ensure this event counts as a qualifying performance for the World Championships”	Threat “This is a potential threat to my integrity if the event does not secure the correct status – athletes from several countries are competing, hoping to qualify for the World Championships”	Self-reliance “I’m asking if I should have gone about this process differently and whether to do it again in the future?”	No reported impact on PWB “I’m worried about the lack of contact and will pursue tomorrow”
	8	Organizational “Asked to produce a plan of work for 12 months in 48 hours’ time. Following a [organization] review, [organization] has reorganized and I have a new role”	Threat “This type of request/demand is typical or the way I am asked to work. I am managed, not led, by a group of people who have too much to do … it frustrates me that I am better than my employees”	Negotiation “My work schedule and planned activities did not give time to drop everything to complete this task [compromise]” Support seeking “I have an overview of my calendar for the coming 12 months and when I meet my line manager on Sunday, I will brief him on this”	No reported impact on PWB “I did not let this have an impact on my well-being. I will do this work and do it well – ready to review in July”

Table 4. Karen’s trajectory pathway.

Experience	Day	Stressor	Primary appraisal	Coping	PWB
Work-life balance	1	Organizational “Emailed from the head coach regarding shift cover in the new year. Head coach has asked if I am able to cover an extra two hour shift on Fridays from the New Year”	Threat “I saw this stressor as a slight inconvenience as I struggle with time management currently and this would add to the workload” Challenge “However, I also see it as an opportunity to improve my financial conditions”	Negotiation “I agreed to take on the extra shifts on the agreement that once the other coach was able to cover the shift I would be able to stand down”	No reported impact on PWB “Overall, would not impact my current well-being as it would be a concern in the New Year and not immediately”
	25	Coach-related “Managing my own busy end of term schedule while trying to maintain an upbeat coaching style and attitude. At this was the last training session I had before Christmas it was important not to lose focus myself. However, after a hectic work schedule in other domains this can be challenging”	Threat “I found this difficult. I was very aware of the gymnasts’ mood and motivation and trying to manage my own in a professional way was difficult”	Self-reliance “I coped. On reflection, I could have managed my lifestyle (food/resources) more efficiently. However, this is sometimes impossible while managing and maintaining multiple part time jobs”	Environmental mastery “Yes to some degree this impacted my well-being. Having multiple jobs that all have important responsibilities can have negative impacts on my own well-being”

Table 5. Lewis’ trajectory pathway.

Experience	Day	Stressor	Primary appraisal	Coping	PWB
Admin and NGB-related tasks	1	Organizational “Parents not replying to messages. I have to follow up with parents about their children’s availability for a fixture at the weekend”	No primary appraisal identified “I did not really see this as any of the appraisals as this happens so regularly”	Accommodation “Sent texts to the parents to get their children’s availability and remove uncertainty”	No reported impact on PWB “No impact on my PWB. This happens on a regular basis and if it was to affect my well-being I would be constantly changing my mood”
	7	Organizational “Non-coaching day but still had admin stressors. Sorting things out for next season. I had a meeting with the club secretary to help plan for next season but I want to get prepared for next season”	Threat “Threat mostly as I have worked hard to set these teams up and I want them to keep going”	Information seeking “Meeting with club secretary and further planning”	No reported impact on PWB “No, not yet but if it gets closer to the time and it’s not sorted out it will start to”
	23	Organizational “There are a number of administration duties that I have to complete. Sorting out teams and kit for next year, as well as a number of presentation day things to sort out”	Threat “Threat to try and fit it all in”	Problem solving “I gave myself specific times to complete these duties”	No reported impact on PWB “No”

Table 6. Oscar’s trajectory pathway.

Experience	Day	Stressor	Primary appraisal	Coping	PWB
Competition	3	Athlete-related “We’ve just been smashed 5-0 at home vs [team]. [Team] have recruited well and are just better than us. We have to play them again next week”	No primary appraisal “I haven’t evaluated it yet as I have to go home for my girlfriend’s birthday”	Escape “Put it to one side – I will worry about it tomorrow”	No reported impact on PWB “I’ll know more tonight whether I sleep or not!”
	6	Athlete-related “GAME DAY. 3-2 loss at home. Late entry because fixture was at 17.30. It was a game against our rivals and one we should have been good enough to win”	Threat “We played poorly and didn’t want it as much as the opposition”	Escape “Night out after the game – this was pre-planned therefore had no time to think about it”	No reported impact on PWB “No”
	10	Athlete-related “Late because we had an away game vs [team] and lost 3-0”	Threat “Frustration of losing and not scoring. I was more concerned about the mind-set of the girls” Challenge “A small success in the change of tactic”	Self-reliance “Long drive home after to reflect”	No reported impact on PWB “No”
	17	Athlete-related “Ladies ones lost 3-0 vs [team] and men’s ones lost 5-3 vs [team]. I also had an issue with a senior player’s behavior”	No primary appraisal identified	Support seeking “Discuss with the assistant coach ASAP and arrange a meeting with the leadership committee”	No reported impact on PWB “No”
	23	Athlete-related “Late fixture in [city], lost 4-0 away. It was 3-0 at half time. Second half gave me something to think about”	Challenge “Excitement for next season. Performances are improving despite the negative results”	Accommodation “Communication with the captains”	No reported impact on PWB “No impact”

Data availability statement

De-identified data that support the findings of this study are available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to their sensitive nature (i.e., a risk to compromise the privacy of research participants).